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Legal Resources for Iran
E-Learning Resources |
Background
Iran executed at least 975 people in 2024, the highest number since 2015, with serious due process violations including lack of access to lawyers. The key challenge remains that Iran is intensifying its crackdown on human rights lawyers, targeting those who defend protesters and dissidents.
The Legal system
Iran operates under a hybrid system combining Islamic law (Sharia) with civil law traditions, heavily influenced by the 1979 Islamic Revolution
In accordance with the Islamic Penal Code, any act or failure to act for which a punishment has been designated in the laws is a crime. Also, according to Article 2 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, all crimes have a divine aspect. All individuals who have reached the age of maturity designated in Sharia law have complete criminal responsibility and in the case of commission of a crime, will be pursued and punished accordingly. Boys are deemed mature by 15 lunar years and girls 9 lunar years. If a mature person commits a crime, they will be tried based on the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Legal Aid
State-sponsored legal aid: While the right to counsel is established, the practical availability of free or subsidized legal aid can be limited due to factors like insufficient funding, lack of awareness, and inadequate outreach efforts.
Existing NGOs providing pro bono legal aid
- UNHCR Iran operates a Legal Services Project with the objective of providing legal assistance to refugees in Iran and resolving disputes through alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.
- Iranian Bar Associations Union
- Defenders of Human Rights Center (DHRC)
- Islamic Human Rights Commission
Number of lawyers: The Iranian Bar Association is estimated to have around 60,000 members. Detailed breakdown between criminal and civil lawyers is unknown.
Human Rights Organizations
Iran Human Rights (IHR): This non-profit, independent organization focuses on building a strong civil society by empowering citizens and promoting human rights as defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. IHR is particularly known for its work on abolishing the death penalty in Iran and monitoring human rights abuses.
Center for Human Rights in Iran (CHRI): Formerly known as the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, CHRI is an American non-governmental organization dedicated to promoting human rights in Iran.
Defenders of Human Rights Center (DHRC): Founded in 2001, the DHRC advocates for the rights of women, political prisoners, and minorities in Iran. Its president is Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Ebadi.
Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI): This non-political and non-governmental organization aims to promote, safeguard, and sustain human rights in Iran. HRAI monitors human rights violations, disseminates information, and advocates for various human rights, including freedom of speech, association, and press.
Impact Iran: A coalition of 19 non-governmental organizations, Impact Iran works to advocate for human rights and drive positive change in Iran by amplifying the voices of Iranian civil society.
Ahwaz Human Rights Organization:
This NGO focuses on defending the human rights of the Ahwazi Arab minority in Iran.
Source of Defendants Rights
National Sources of Defendant’s Rights
- Article 32 states that no person may be arrested except according to and in the manner laid down in the law. If someone is detained, the subject matter of the charge, with reasons (for bringing it), must immediately be communicated and explained in writing to the accused. Within at most 24 hours the file on the case and preliminary documentation must be referred to the competent legal authority.
- Article 34 states that everyone may refer to the competent courts in search of justice.
- Article 35 of the Iranian Constitution explicitly states that both parties in a lawsuit have the right to select an attorney, and if they cannot afford one, arrangements must be made to provide legal counsel according to the Center for Human Rights in Iran.
- Article 36 says that a sentence to punishment and its execution must only be by the decision of a competent court, and by virtue of law.
- Article 37 says that innocence is the basic principle. No person is considered legally guilty, except in cases where his guilt is established in a competent court.
- Article 38 prevents use of torture to obtain information.
- Article 39 protects the arrested person’s dignity and respect.
International Sources of defendant’s rights
- Article 14: Guarantees the right to a fair trial and due process of law.
- Article 19: Protects freedom of expression.
- Article 22: Protects freedom of association.
Rights of the Accused
Presumption of innocence:
Article 37 of the Iranian Constitution says that innocence is the basic principle. No person is considered legally guilty, except in cases where his guilt is established in a competent court.
Right to defense: Article 3 of the “Citizenship Rights Law” (2004) clearly required courts and prosecution offices to respect the right of the accused to a defense and to provide the accused with the services of a defense attorney.
Right to counsel: Article 35 of the Iranian Constitution explicitly states that both parties in a lawsuit have the right to select an attorney, and if they cannot afford one, arrangements must be made to provide legal counsel according to the Center for Human Rights in Iran. Article 185 of the Islamic Penal Code protects rights to an attorney.
Right to a fair trial: Article 34 Constitution states that everyone may refer to the competent courts in search of justice. Article 36 Constitution says that a sentence to punishment and its execution must only be by the decision of a competent court, and by virtue of law. Judges are appointed based on ideology rather than legal training.
Temporary detention (only with evidence): Article 5 of the “Citizenship Rights Law” (2004) forbids arbitrary detention of individuals. Officials must also provide the family of the detainee with information.
Confession without coercion: Article 37 Constitution prevents use of torture to obtain information. Article 169 Islamic Penal Code: Any confession made under duress, coercion, torture, and/or mental or physical harassment and molestation shall have no value and credit; and the court shall interrogate the accused, again.
Qesās (Retaliation): retribution where victim or family members can demand similar punishments
Civil rights upheld: Article 39 Constitution protects the arrested person’s dignity and respect. Right Against Unlawful Arrests, Searches, Seizures, and Unlawful Detention Article 32 Constitution states that no person may be arrested except according to and in the manner laid down in the law. If someone is detained, the subject matter of the charge, with reasons (for bringing it), must immediately be communicated and explained in writing to the accused. Within at most 24 hours the file on the case and preliminary documentation must be referred to the competent legal authority.
Right Not to be Tortured or Ill-Treated: Article 37 Constitution prevents use of torture to obtain information.
Right to Medical Care: Article 495 of the Iranian Penal Code states that a physician is responsible for "diyah" (blood money) if their treatment results in harm to a patient, unless the treatment was medically and technically sound and the physician was not at fault, according to the International Academic Institute for Science and Technology.
Rights of Counsel
Right to Provide Representation: Guaranteed by article 35 of the Constitution.
Right of Access to the Client: Investigators can block the presence of trial attorneys during interrogations, according to Article 128 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (1999). Some also use the note under this article to refuse to accept a retainer letter from an attorney.
Right to Information: Trial attorneys are at times unable to accompany their clients through the criminal investigation of their case, and also not able to read the case and prepare motions and defenses on their behalf.
Right to Confidential Communication with the Client: Investigators can refuse to accept a retainer letter from an attorney, thereby denying confidential communications.
Means of Protecting or Enforcing Rights
Exclusionary Rule:
While Iran does not have explicit exclusionary rule that automatically excludes any evidence obtained illegally, there exists protection against using coercion and torture for extracting confession or information (Article 38 of Iranian Constitution).
Nullity of Procedure:
Nullity can occur when a court's actions or decisions contravene established legal principles, such as the principle of legality (crimes and punishments must be defined by law) or the principle of due process (fair trial guarantees).
Failing to properly notify the accused, not allowing them to present a defense, or conducting a trial in an unconstitutional manner, can lead to nullity.
If the court lacks the legal authority (jurisdiction) to hear a case, any proceedings conducted by that court are null and void.
Contempt:
In case of contempt of the court (noncompliance with the court's order), the judge may for the first time add up to a half of the period set forth in the writ to the term of the postponement or enter a conviction sentence (Article 44 of Islamic Penal Code)
Should a convict, whose punishment has reprieved, be in contempt of the court by not complying with the court orders, without plausible excuse, the court entering the final sentence may, at the request of the public prosecutor or sentence enforcement judge, add to the period of reprieve one to two years, for the first time, or revoke the stay of execution writ. Contempt of the court (noncompliance with the court order) for the second time will result in setting aside the stay of execution writ and enforcement of punishment (Article 50 Islamic Penal Code)
Civil Actions:
The incarceration alternatives constitute probation period, unpaid public services, pecuniary penalty, daily pecuniary penalty and civil disability, which will be determined and enforced in case of remission by the complainant and existence of extenuating circumstances (Article 53 Islamic Penal Code)
There shall be no civil liability in the instances where perpetration of felony is not attributed to the action of any person, such as when it occurs out of natural disaster causes (Article 500 Islamic Penal Code)
Pre-trial Procedures
Initiation of proceedings:
Cases can be initiated through prosecutorial or investigatory action by judicial authorities in performing legal duties such as summoning, arresting, interrogating.
Complaints for certain forgettable ta'zir offenses must be made within one year from when the victim becomes aware of the offense.
Arrest, Search and Seizure Laws:
Limited information on stop-and-frisk
Arrests can only be made with warrants. Detaining individuals without proper authority can mean 1-3 years imprisonment or fines.
Pre-trial detention is counted towards the sentence. There are cases marked by allegations of torture and due process violations, and lack of access to lawyer.
Procurators may supervise private bank accounts with approval of the head of the judicial district (lowered from provincial approval requirements). Once imprisoned, inmates are thoroughly searched, particularly for drugs, with body scanners and strip searches conducted.
No specific lineup procedures.
Interrogation:
Prosecution or interrogation action is a measure taken by judicial authorities in carrying out a legally provided function such as summoning, arresting, interrogating, hearing witnesses and informants statements, making offense scene investigations or inspection and letters rogatory (Article 105 Islamic Penal Code).
Generally conducted under the supervision of a prosecutor and other judicial authority.
Investigators can gather evidence, question witnesses, and take other actions to uncover a crime. No torture allowed.
During interrogation, accused have the right to silence and have an advocate.
Court Procedures
Pre-trial: Preliminary investigation:
“Preliminary investigation” is the collection of investigative actions taken for the purpose of discovery of the crime, preserving the evidence of the commission of crime, as well as pursuing the accused from the issuance of the warrant order until his submission to judicial officials. These are usually confidential and in writing. This process aims to collect the reasons and documents of the crime, prevent the flight or conspiring of the accused and the issuance of a preliminary judicial opinion on the guilt or innocence of the accused. (Article 19 of Code of Criminal Procedure)
The case investigator can only start a “preliminary investigation” for collecting evidence of a crime and issuing a judicial opinion if he is given permission to do so. (conditions outlined in section d, article 3 of the Law of Formation of the General and Revolutionary Courts)
The formal charges would create cases, which proceed through prosecution court. Murder and rape charges tried by Criminal Courts, while security-related charges, corruption, and drug trafficking processed by Revolutionary Courts.
Prosecution court issues summons to defendant explaining charges and attendance date/time, usually followed by "temporary arrest" proceedings
Temporary detention:
Usually, the accused is summoned or placed in detention. However, they do have specific rights that security officers must respect.
Arbitrary detention of individuals is forbidden, according to article 5 of the citizenship law passed in May of 2004. Officials must also provide the family of the detainee with information. If the accused is not arrested by the order and demand of a judicial official, they cannot be kept in prison for more than 24 hours without an investigation order being issued (Article 123 of the Criminal Code of Procedure). Temporary detention orders can only be issued for specific cases including murder, kidnapping, spilling acid on someone, or possibility of feeling (Articles 35 and 132 of Iranian Criminal Code of Procedure). If issued, they cannot be held for more than two months based on the majority of charges and four months for very specific charges (Article 3 of law of the Formation of the Public and Revolutionary Courts). In political/press related charges, the investigator on the case has the authority to keep the accused in the detention center of the Ministry of Intelligence for up to four months (Article 20 of the Law of the Formation of the Public and Revolutionary Courts).
Interrogation:
The nature of their crime and connection with international human rights organizations can influence the interrogation team’s behavior.
Cases of solitary confinement, lack of access to hygienic services, use of blindfolds, inappropriate behavior of interrogation teams, bans on fresh air, and refusal to allow phone conversations reflect the use of psychological torture in Iranian prisons.
Trial
Nature of the Trial:
All cases are tried in a specific court depending on the nature of the accusation, the location of the commission of the alleged crime, and the characteristics of the accused.
Article 168 of the Iranian constitution states that political crimes must be tried in an “open” and “public court” in the presence of a “jury.” Authorities can use the absence of “political crime” as an excuse to deny defendants of a public trial.
Article 5 of the Law of Formation of Public and Revolutionary courts says that political prisoners are tried in “revolutionary court” without jury. Court sessions typically last a few minutes long. Heads ask questions about name, personal identification, and statement of charges as formalities.
Defendant:
Protected if a defense attorney is present.
Lawyers:
At the court's beginning, the prosecutor representative must read the indictment of the accused and defend its content. In political/press related cases, a representative of the prosecutor is usually an intelligence employee of the revolutionary prosecution office who may have played a role in the interrogation of the accused during the preliminary investigation.
Defense attorneys can defend their clients both verbally and in writing.
Expert Witnesses:
Where a witness does not have the requisite conditions prescribed by the divine law, her/his statements will be heard. It is for the court to determine the extent of effect and value of those statements as judicial presumption on the judge’s knowledge of facts (Article 176 of Islamic Penal Code)
Under divine law, a witness must have the following conditions (Article 177 Constitution):
- Maturity;
- Sanity;
- Faithfulness;
- Virtuousness;
- Legitimacy by birth;
- Lack of interest in the subject matter of testimony;
- Lack of hostility against the parties or either party;
- Non-engagement in beggary;
- Not being a vagabond.
Where a witness was a discerning minor when witnessing the facts subject matter of testimony, but reaches the full age at the time of giving evidence, her/his testimony shall be valid (Article 179)
Contradictory witness testimony will be considered invalid (Article 182)
If witness cannot be present in person, evidence shall be valid in writing, live audio-video and/or recorded forms, upon establishing that the requisites are met, and that the attribution is verified (Article 186)
Challenge of a witness constitutes asseveration regarding lack of one of the qualification requisites prescribed by the divine law for a witness; and verification means giving evidence confirming that the qualification requisites laid down by the divine law for a witness are met (Article 191).
Judges:
Court verdict must be well-founded and documented. The judge must mention both the basis of his reasoning as well as the legal scripture and articles on which his sentence is based when issuing his opinion (Article 166 of the Constitution and Article 9 of the Law of Formation of the Public and Revolutionary Court).
Victims:
Where there is a number of victims of an offense, prosecution will commence upon lodging a complaint by each of them, but abatement of prosecution and proceeding, and reprieve of execution of punishment shall be subject to remission by all complainants (Article 102 Islamic Penal Code)
Should the victim of the offense fail to complain within the period of one year from the date he or she became aware of perpetration of the offense, he or she will lose the right to lodge a criminal complaint (Article 102 Islamic Penal Code)
Victims have the following rights within the criminal justice system:
Sentencing
The report is signed by the accused and attorney at the end of the court session. The judge must issue a verdict within a week’s time (Article 17 of the Law of Formation of Public and Revolutionary Courts).
In practice, suspending the investigation of political/press related cases is a matter of security in the hands of the administration. It can put the individual in a passive position, unable to take decisive actions.
A court verdict must be officially handed down to the accused and/or his attorneys. The handing down of the verdict is an important matter, because it determines the limited period for appealing the verdict.
Exception: for political/press related cases, a verdict is not handed down because authorities fear anti-human rights retribution.
Appeals:
The intention of the accused in requesting an appeal of his sentence stems from his belief that the initial sentence is unnecessarily high. However, in the framework of the Iranian criminal system, appealing an initial sentence may potentially increase its length. According to Shi’a jurisprudence governing Iran’s criminal justice system, if the first verdict is not in accordance with the teachings of Sharia law, a harsher punishment may be issued by the appeal court.
If an individual wants to appeal their temporary detention status, they must submit the request to the Court of Appeal of that province within 10 days. If the court finds the objection valid, it will cancel the decision for temporary detention. (Article 33 of Criminal Procedure Code).
The deadline for requesting an appeal for people residing in Iran is 20 days, and for people residing out of the country, they have 2 months after the date of notification or the running of the time in which s/he can appeal (Article 236 of Criminal Procedure Code).
Appellate courts generally summon the accused to a hearing before issuing a decision.
Reasons for appeal (Article 240 of Criminal Procedure Code):
Right to Counsel:
Guaranteed by Iranian Constitution
Under new Criminal Procedure Code, lawyers must be pre-approved by the Head of the Judiciary for security related cases
Ineffective Assistance of Counsel:
Restrictions surrounding the security cases prevent lawyers from accessing case files and the accused during investigation. This can last for weeks or even months. There are also cases where lawyers are denied attendance at the hearing session, and prosecuted for taking on politically sensitive cases.
Lawyers lack independence, since the judiciary system can label some as more trustworthy than others for security cases.
Other Grounds for Appeal:
The sentences issued by Public and Revolutionary Courts on Criminal Affairs are definite and can be appealed only in the following cases:
Collateral Remedies (Habeas etc…):
The government has an obligation to compensate the defendant for damages and offset the losses of innocent accused. However, there is a lack of compensation for unjustified detention (Penal Code of 2014).
Rights in Prison
Right to Humane Conditions of Confinement:
Basic necessities outlined in the Constitution for all citizens include: housing, food, clothing, hygiene, medical treatment, education, and the necessary facilities for the establishment of a family.
Immigrant’s Rights in Detention:
Studies show that immigrant defendants living in Iran, including Afghans, Pakistanis, Indians, Arabs and Tanzanians, experience significant obstacles in the criminal process. There is a lack of laws and provisions assigned for immigrants in different stages of proceedings.
Right to Medical Care in Prison:
The judge may consider the defendant’s medical services to suspend performance of public service temporarily, or propose an alternative punishment to the sentence issued in court (Islamic Penal Code Article 84).
If a physician causes death/body injury while treating the defendant, they would be liable to pay wergild (Islamic Penal Code Article 495).
Amnesty International issued a report documenting the denial of medical care in Iran’s prisons. The report details denial of specialized medical care outside prison, intentional interruption or discontinuation of treatments, denial of release on medical grounds, withholding medication, and gender-specific abuses.
Right to Mental Health Care:
At present, Iran has no laws that specifically address mental health. However, the civil law, the Islamic penal code, a jurisdiction act, a set of safeguarding measures from 1960, family protection law and a law permitting payment of wages to psychiatric patients do help to protect different aspects of the rights of psychiatric patients.
Rights of Special Populations:
- Iran Human Rights considers the Islamic Penal Code to be the main cause of violence against the LGBT community because it sets flogging and the death penalty for homosexual relations. Fixed punishment is set for sodomy, where the “active” party will be sentenced to death if they used force or rape. The “passive” party will be sentenced to death regardless of marital status (Article 234 Islamic Penal Code)
- Where at the time of committing an offense the perpetrator suffered from mental disorder in such manner that he or she lacked the volition and power of discernment, he or she will be deemed insane, and shall have no criminal liability (Islamic Penal Code Article 149)
- If the minor commits the offense at age 9-15 years, the court will make one of the decisions:
- Hand over to the parents or guardians and asking them to chastise/train the minor to adopt good conduct
- Hand over to the parents or guardians and asking them to chastise/train the minor to adopt good conduct
- If the minor was of age 15-18, the following punishments will be executed:
- Detention in the reformatory for the period of two to five years in respect of the offenses the statutorily prescribed punishments of which are the first to the fifth degree discretionary punishments
- Detention in the reformatory for the period of one to three year(s) in respect of the offenses the statutorily prescribed punishment of which is the fourth degree discretionary punishment
- Detention in the reformatory for the period of three months to one year, or pecuniary penalty from ten million (10,000,000) Rials to forty million (40,000,000) Rials, or performance of one hundred and eighty to seven hundred and twenty hours of unpaid public services in respect of the offenses the statutorily prescribed punishments of which is the fifth degree discretionary punishment
- Payment of pecuniary penalty from one million (1,000,000) Rials to ten million (10,000,000) Rials, or performance of sixty to one hundred and eighty hours of unpaid public services in respect of the offenses the statutorily prescribed punishments of which is the sixth degree discretionary punishment
- Payment of pecuniary penalty up to one million (1,000,000) Rials in respect of the offenses the statutorily prescribed punishments of which are the seventh degree and eighth degree discretionary punishments.
- Detention in the reformatory for the period of two to five years in respect of the offenses the statutorily prescribed punishments of which are the first to the fifth degree discretionary punishments
- Criminal convictions of minors and juveniles create no criminal records (Article 95 Islamic Penal Code)
Resources
- "Law of the Formation of the Public and Revolutionary Courts", legal-tools.org (2009), https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/f9f706/pdf/
- "The Islamic Penal Code of Iran", Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (2014), https://iranhrdc.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf_en/Iranian_Codes/Iran_Criminal_Code_English_143233623.pdf
- "Islamic Penal Code", UNODC SHERLOC (2013), https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/uploads/res/islamic-penal-code_html/Islamic_Penal_Code.pdf
- "Administration of criminal justice in Iran", Cambridge University Press (2020), https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/rule-of-law-in-the-islamic-republic-of-iran/administration-of-criminal-justice-in-iran/6E3EBEB82AEAEA21BE1A1C93E7661AA7
- "Criminal Procedure Law of Iran", Iran Best Lawyer (n.d.), https://www.iranbestlawyer.com/criminal-procedure-law-of-iran/#:~:text=Article%2015,adherence%20to%20civil%20procedure%20formalities
- "The Iranian Mental Health Act", US National Library of Medicine (2017), https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5618927/
- "LGBT-Phobia and the Cruelty of the Islamic Penal Code in Iran", Iran Human Rights (2022), https://iranhr.net/en/articles/4735/
- "Health taken hostage: Cruel denial of medical care in Iran's prisons", Amnesty International (2016), https://www.amnesty.org/ar/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MDE1341962016ENGLISH.pdf
- "Barriers to Immigrant Defendants' Access to Justice during the Prosecution Phase in Iranian Criminal Justice System", ResearchGate (2024), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389174119_Barriers_to_Immigrant_Defendants'_Access_to_Justice_during_the_Prosecution_Phase_in_Iranian_Criminal_Justice_System
- "The Right of the Accused to Compensation in the Iranian Criminal Justice System", ResearchGate (2018), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324730064_The_Right_of_the_Accused_to_Compensation_in_the_Iranian_Criminal_Justice_System#:~:text=In%20the%20Iranian%20criminal%20justice%20system%2C%20the%20right%20to%20compensation,will%20explain%20the%20various
- "You have the right to an attorney… that we approve of: Right to Counsel under Iran’s new Criminal Procedure Code", Oxford Human Rights Hub (2015), https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/you-have-the-right-to-an-attorney-that-we-approve-of-right-to-counsel-under-irans-new-criminal-procedure-code-2/
- "Capital punishment in Iran", Wikipedia (2024), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Iran
- "Iran: New compulsory veiling law intensifies oppression of women and girls", Amnesty International (2024), https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/12/iran-new-compulsory-veiling-law-intensifies-oppression-of-women-and-girls/
- "Law of the Formation of Public and Revolutionary Courts (2009)", Refworld (2013), https://www.refworld.org/docid/518a19404.html
- "Codifying Repression: An Assessment of Iran's New Penal Code", Human Rights Watch (2012), https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/08/28/codifying-repression/assessment-irans-new-penal-code
- "Justice for Iran", justice4iran.org (2024), https://justice4iran.org/
- "Iran: New compulsory veiling law intensifies oppression of women and girls", Amnesty International (2024), https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/12/iran-new-compulsory-veiling-law-intensifies-oppression-of-women-and-girls/
- "Islamic Penal Code", UNODC SHERLOC (2013), https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/uploads/res/islamic-penal-code_html/Islamic_Penal_Code.pdf
- "The Rule of Law in the Islamic Republic of Iran", University of Essex (2010), https://www1.essex.ac.uk/hri/documents/rule-of-law-in-iran.pdf#:~:text=The%20relevant%20treaty%20to%20which%20Iran%20is,and%20freedom%20of%20association%20under%20Article%2022.&text=This%20is%20a%20clear%20interference%20by%20the%20executive%20in%20judicial%20affairs
- "Legal Support", UNHCR Iran (2024), https://www.unhcr.org/ir/legal-support
- "Effectiveness of Legal Aid for Suspects or Defendants in the Iranian Criminal Justice System", International Journal of Educational and Vocational Social Science (2022), https://e-journal.citakonsultindo.or.id/index.php/IJEVSS/article/download/301/304/
- "Iranian Lawyers: Judiciary’s Mandatory List of “Approved” Counsel Sets “Dangerous Precedent”", Iran Human Rights (2018), https://iranhumanrights.org/2018/03/iranian-lawyers-judiciarys-mandatory-list-of-approved-counsel-sets-dangerous-precedent/
- "Effectiveness of Legal Aid for Suspects or Defendants in the Iranian Criminal Justice System", International Journal of Educational and Vocational Social Science (2022), https://e-journal.citakonsultindo.or.id/index.php/IJEVSS/article/download/301/304/#:~:text=However%2C%20the%20availability%20of%20legal%20aid%20is,support%2C%20exacerbating%20imbalances%20in%20the%20judicial%20process
