Tajikistan

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Background

The Republic of Tajikistan is located in Central Asia, bordered by Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and China. It has a nationality of 9,245,937 (2023 est.), with 84.3% of the population being Tajik, and 13.8% being Uzbek1. The official language is Tajik. It declared itself as an independent nation in 1991, as the USSR was breaking down. Following this, a civil war arose, lasting from 1992 to 1997.

Tajikistan has been led by its President, Emomali Rahmon, since 1994, although general elections are held for the presidency every seven years. There are concerns about the abuse of the country’s electoral system. For instance, Rahmon banned Tajikistan’s last major opposition political party in 2015, and in the same year declared himself “Founder of Peace and National Unity, Leader of the Nation”, which has bestowed lifelong immunity upon him through amendments to the constitution.

The country faces major economic challenges, for instance its dependence on remittances (which accounted for 30% of GDP in 2018), the opiate trade, and destabilizing violence emanating from Afghanistan3. Despite considerable socioeconomic reforms over the past twenty years, Tajikistan still has the lowest GDP per capita in Central Asia, with 27.4% of its population living below the national poverty line4. Since 2022, there have been armed clashes along its border with Kyrgyzstan.

Moreover, there are serious concerns about Tajikistan’s human rights record. In 2022, the Human Rights Watch stated, “Tajikistan’s human rights record continues to deteriorate amid an ongoing crackdown on freedom of expression and the political opposition, as well as the targeting of independent lawyers, journalists, and family members of opposition activists abroad. Authorities’ use of torture to obtain confessions remains a serious concern.

The Legal system

Tajikistan is a civil law jurisdiction.

Legal Aid

State Sponsored legal aid: Art.92 of Tajikistan’s constitution guarantees legal aid. The Ministry of Justice of Tajikistan is responsible for the management of free legal aid. The Judicial and Legal Reform Programme for 2015−2017 aimed to establish a free legal aid state system. In 2020, the Parliament adopted a Law on Legal Aid in Tajikistan which affirmed its commitment to the provision of free legal aid services. Currently, 34 cities and districts are covered by primary free legal aid sources. Secondary sources have been rolled out in the Sughd and Khatlon regions. 87,000 people have been able to use such services between 2016-2021. However, access to justice remains an issue, particularly for poor people and those in rural areas. The sparsity of lawyers operating in Tajikistan as well as the slow court system means it can be difficult to obtain legal advice, meaning NGOs are still important in providing pro bono legal aid.

Existing NGOs providing pro bono legal aid:
NGOs include: The Centre on Human Rights, The League of Female Lawyers, and the International Centre for Non-Profit Law. Moreover, the UNHCR Tajikistan runs c.26 legal aid centres across the country.

Number of lawyers (criminal/civil): c.820

Source of Defendants Rights

National Sources of Defendant’s rights:
The Criminal Executive Code (2001) is the primary source of defendant’s rights. The Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan (adopted in 1994 and last amended in 2003) also lays down some fundamental rights.

International Sources of defendant’s rights:
Tajikistan acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) and the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in January 1999. It acceded to the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) in 1995.

Rights of the Accused

Please note that some of these rights arise under international sources.

Right Against Unlawful Arrests, Searches and Seizures: Art.9 CCPR:

“1. Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and in accordance with such procedure as are established by law.
2. Anyone who is arrested shall be informed, at the time of arrest, of the reasons for his arrest and shall be promptly informed of any charges against him.
3. Anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge shall be brought promptly before a judge or other officer authorized by law to exercise judicial power and shall be entitled to trial within a reasonable time or to release. It shall not be the general rule that persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be subject to guarantees to appear for trial, at any other stage of the judicial proceedings, and should occasion arise, for execution of the judgement.
4. Anyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings before a court, in order that that court may decide without delay on the lawfulness of his detention and order his release if the detention is not lawful.
5. Anyone who has been the victim of unlawful arrest or detention shall have an enforceable right to compensation.”

Right Against Unlawful Detention: Art.9 CCPR (see above)

Right Not to be Tortured or Ill-Treated: Art.10(2) CEC (2001):

“It shall be strictly prohibited to subject convicted persons to tortures or cruel, inhumane and degrading his dignity treatment, medical or any other scientific experiments, regardless of his consent, which may endanger his life and health.”
Art.16(2) CEC (2001): “Convicted persons have the right to polite treatment by staff of the criminal executive institution or body. They shall not be subject to cruel or dignity degrading treatment. The application of coercive measures shall be based only on law. “

Right to Medical Care: Art.16(5) CEC (2001):

“Convicted persons have the right to health protection including first medical-sanitary and specialized medical aid in out-patient and in-patient facilities depending on medical prescription as well as the right to material and social provision.”

Right to be Informed of Charges: Art.9(2), (3a) CCPR:

“2. Anyone who is arrested shall be informed, at the time of arrest, of the reasons for his arrest and shall be promptly informed of any charges against him.
3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following minimum guarantees, in full equality: (a) To be informed promptly and in detail in a language which he understands of the nature and cause of the charge against him.”

Right to Presumption of Innocence: Art.14(2) CCPR:

“Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall have the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.”

Right to Counsel and Effective Assistance:

Art.14(3)(d) CCPR:
“[3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following minimum guarantees, in full equality] to be tried in his presence, and to defend himself in person or through legal assistance of his own choosing; to be informed, if he does not have legal assistance, of this right; and to have legal assistance assigned to him, in any case where the interests of justice so require, and without payment by him in any such case if he does not have sufficient means to pay for it.”
Art.19 Constitution of Tajikistan:
… Everyone shall be entitled to use the assistance of advocate from the moment of his arrest.

Right to a Present a Defense: Art.14(3)(b), (d) CCPR:

“[3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following minimum guarantees, in full equality] (b) To have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his defence and to communicate with counsel of his own choosing […](d) To be tried in his presence, and to defend himself in person or through legal assistance of his own choosing…”

Right to Due Process:

Art.19, Constitution of Tajikistan:
“Everyone is guaranteed judicial protection. Everyone has the right to demand that his case be considered by a competent, independent, and impartial court established in accordance with law. No one may be detained and arrested without legal grounds. A person has the right to services of an attorney from the moment of his arrest.”
Art.20, Constitution of Tajikistan:
“No one is considered guilty of committing a crime until the entry of the court verdict into legal force. No one may be held responsible after the expiration of the criminal prosecution period as well as for actions that were not considered a crime at the time they were committed. No one may be convicted twice for one and the same crime.
A law adopted after a person has committed an illegal act that increases the punishment for it does not have retroactive force. If after committing of an illegal act the responsibility [for that act] is repealed or reduced, the new law applies.
Full confiscation of the property of a convicted [person] is prohibited.”

Right to Equal Protection of the Laws:

Art.17 Constitution of Tajikistan: “All are equal before the law and court. The State guarantees the rights and freedoms of everyone regardless of his nationality, race, gender, language, religious beliefs, political persuasion, education, [and] social and property status. Men and women have equal rights.”
Art.9 CEC (2001): “The order and conditions of execution of a sentence shall be determined irrespective of social, official and property status, political convictions, type and character of convicted person's occupation before committing a crime, race, nationality, citizenship, education, language, religious affiliation and other circumstances.”
Art.26 CCPR: “All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”

Right to Bail: Individuals may be able to bail out, although this may be denied for particularly serious crimes.
An amount of bail varies from the level of crime:

• 100 times monthly income for minor crimes;
• 300 times monthly income for negligent crimes of medium gravity;
• 500 times monthly income for pre-meditated crimes of medium gravity;
• 1000 times monthly income for serious crimes.

Right Against Ex Post Facto Prosecution:

Art.20 Constitution of Tajikistan: “…No one may be held responsible after the expiration of the criminal prosecution period as well as for actions that were not considered a crime at the time they were committed…”
Art.15(1) CCPR: “No one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a criminal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time when the criminal offence was committed. If, subsequent to the commission of the offence, provision is made by law for the imposition of the lighter penalty, the offender shall benefit thereby.”

Right Against Double Jeopardy:

Art.20 Constitution of Tajikistan: “…No one may be convicted twice for one and the same crime…”
Art.14(7) CCPR: “No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which he has already been finally convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of each country.”

Right to a Fair Trial:

• Generally:
  Art.19 Constitution of Tajikistan: “Everyone shall be guaranteed judicial protection. Everyone shall be entitled to consider his case by competent, independent, and impartial court established according to the law.”
  Art.14(1) CCPR: “All persons shall be equal before the courts and tribunals. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, or of his rights and obligations in a suit at law, everyone shall be entitled to a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law. The press and the public may be excluded from all or part of a trial for reasons of morals, public order (ordre public) or national security in a democratic society, or when the interest of the private lives of the parties so requires, or to the extent strictly necessary in the opinion of the court in special circumstances where publicity would prejudice the interests of justice; but any judgement rendered in a criminal case or in a suit at law shall be made public except where the interest of juvenile persons otherwise requires or the proceedings concern matrimonial disputes or the guardianship of children.”
• Right to a Trial by Jury: There is no jury system in Tajikistan.
• Right to a Speedy Trial: Art.14(3)(c) CCPR: “[3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following minimum guarantees, in full equality] (c) To be tried without undue delay.”
• Right to an Impartial Judge: Art.19 Constitution of Tajikistan: “…Everyone has the right to demand that his case be considered by a competent, independent, and impartial court…”
  Art.14(1) CCPR: “…everyone shall be entitled to a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law…”
• Right to Language Interpretation: Art.16(4) CEC (2001): “Convicted persons have the right to give explanations and be in correspondence, make proposals, applications and complaints mentioned in part three of the present article in their native language or any other language they know, and in necessary cases they may use translation service. Convicted persons should receive a reply in the language of the application, and if it is not possible to reply in the language of the application, it shall be given in the state language of the Republic of Tajikistan. Translation of the reply into state language shall be provided by the institution or body in charge of execution of a sentence.”
  Art.14(3)(f) CCPR “[3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following minimum guarantees, in full equality] (f) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court.”
• Right to Habeas Corpus: Art.9 CCPR: “Anyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings before a court, in order that that court may decide without delay on the lawfulness of his detention and order his release if the detention is not lawful.”
  The right to Habeas Corpus could be read into Art.9 CCPR, since the WGEID has confirmed that it is a non-derogable right and crucial for ensuring the right to personal liberty.

Capital Punishment: Capital punishment is permitted under Art.18 Constitution of Tajikistan (1999):

“Every person has the right to life. No person may be deprived of life except by the verdict of a court for a very serious crime.”
Arts. 219-222 CEC (2001): “Article 219. Grounds and order of execution of death penalty:
1.A sentence of the court that has come into force, conclusions of the Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Tajikistan and the General Public Prosecutor about absence of grounds for entering a protest against court sentence as an act of supervision, the decree of the President of the Republic of Tajikistan about dismissing clemency application as well as an act about a convicted person's refusal to submit clemency application shall serve as grounds for executing a sentence of death penalty.
2.Death penalty is executed not in public by shooting. Death penalty if imposed on several persons is executed separately in regard to each individual and in absence of others.
Article 220. Persons who are present while execution of death penalty:
1.A public prosecutor who implements supervision over legality in institutions of deprivation of liberty and preliminary detention, the chief of the institution in charge of execution of the sentence and a doctor have the right to be present while execution of death penalty.
2.Death of a convicted person is verified by a doctor. A protocol about execution of the sentence is drawn up and signed by the persons mentioned in the first part of the present article.
Article 221. Notification about execution of death penalty:
1.The chief of the institution where sentence of death penalty was executed shall immediately notify by a special letter the Information agency of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan about execution of the sentence.
2.The information centre shall notify the court that passed the sentence about its execution within three days.
3.Having received such information, the court shall send a notification to the department (bureau) of ZAGS at the last residence place of the convicted person for registration of convicted person's death, but if it is not possible to identify his permanent residence it shall be sent to the department of ZAGS at the location of the court that passed the sentence. Simultaneously, it shall inform close relatives about execution of death penalty. A body shall not be given out for burial, and burial place shall not be disclosed.
Article 222. Stay of execution of the death penalty:
1.If a person sentenced to death penalty displays symptoms of mental disorder, the administration of reprimand prison shall organize his medical examination by a commission of three doctors-experts, and a corresponding protocol shall be drawn up.
2.If it is established that a convicted person has a mental disease that deprives him of ability to be aware of his actions or be in control of them, death penalty shall not be executed, and a protocol of the medical examination shall be forwarded to the court that passed the sentence.” <br< However, Tajikistan introduced a moratorium on the death penalty in 2004, which is still in force.

Right to Appeal:

Art.16(3) CEC 2001: “Convicted persons have the right to apply with proposals, applications and complaints to the administration of the criminal executive institution or body, higher bodies, courts, offices of public prosecutor, other bodies of state government and local government, public associations, as well as to interstate bodies and international organizations for protection of human rights and freedoms.”
Art.14(5) CPPR “Everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law.

Rights of Counsel

Right to Provide Representation: Although there is no specific right to provide representation, the right to counsel under Art.19 of the Constitution implies such a right. However, lawyers have been subject to improper interference by law enforcement agencies, as well as harassment, particularly in politically sensitive cases. Tajikistan has declined to amend the Law on Advokatura (2015) to remove obstacles to lawyers’ independence.

Right of Access to the Client: Art.53 of the Criminal Procedure Code and Art.9 of the Law on Advokatura establish a lawyer’s right to meet with their clients (although in practice, such access is limited, according to the UPR’s 39th session).

Right to Information: There is no specific right to information, although this may be implied by Art.19 of the Constitution.

Right to Confidential Communication with the Client: Lawyers from Tajikistan have highlighted that prison personnel make insufficient efforts to ensure the confidentiality of their meetings with their clients. Moreover, Art.11(4) of the Law of Advokatura provides that information on cases relating to terrorism, extremism or money laundering is not protected by lawyer-client privilege.

Pre-Trial Procedure

Police procedures: Information necessary for this section cannot be found online. The law “On Police” (2004) would likely provide insight, but no English translation of this is available online.

Court Procedures

Trial:
There is no jury system in Tajikistan. Over the course of a trial, the court will hear the views of all participants and examines evidence. There are speeches from the prosecuting attorney, the victim, the person on trial, and the defence attorney, followed by the final plea of the person on trial. Trials are heard in Tajik and Russian, and the court can appoint an interpreter.

Sentencing: Possible sentences include fines, injunctions, engagement in public works. Correctional labour sentences comprise of restriction in military service, restrictions from certain activities, restrictions from working in legal institutions, imprisonment, detention in a disciplinary military unit, and capital punishment for terrorist offences resulting in fatalities, and war crimes (though there exists a moratorium on the death penalty).

• Art.14 CEC 2001:
  1. Correction of a convicted person refers to forming his respectful attitude to a man, society, labor, norms, rules and traditions of the community, and stimulating his law-abiding conduct.
  2. The main means of correction include the established order of execution and serving of a sentence (regime), educational activities, labor, general education, professional training and public influence.
  3. The means of correction shall be used by taking into account type of punishment, character and degree of public danger of the crime committed, personality of a convicted person and his conduct.
• Art.23 CEC 2001:
  “1. Penalties of fine and confiscation of property shall be executed by the court, which passed the sentence, as well as by a court at the location place of property, employment and residence places of the convicted person.
  2. Penalty of revocation of the right to hold a post or be engaged in specific activities shall be executed by the inspection on correctional affairs at the place of residence of the convicted person, correctional institutions or disciplinary military unit. The requirements of the sentence of revocation of the right to hold a post or be engaged in specific activities shall be executed by the administration of the organization at the employment place of the convicted person, as well as by bodies, which are authorized by law to annul a license for doing respective activities.
  3. Penalty of deprivation of military, diplomatic, other special ranks and state awards shall be executed by the court, which passed the sentence. The requirements of the sentence to deprive military, diplomatic, other special ranks and state awards shall be executed by the official or body that conferred military, diplomatic, other special ranks and state awards.
  4. Penalty of correctional labor shall be executed by inspection on correctional affairs.
  5. Penalties of liberty restraint, confinement, deprivation of liberty and death penalty shall be executed by institutions of criminal executive system.
  6. Penalties of military service restrictions, confinement and detention in a disciplinary military unit in regard to servicemen shall be executed by the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Tajikistan. The requirements of sentence in the form of military service restrictions shall be executed by a command of military units, institutions, bodies and military formations where the convicted servicemen serve; the requirements of sentence in the form of confinement shall be executed by the garrison command of military detention for convicted servicemen; the requirements of sentence in the form of detention in a disciplinary military unit shall be executed by special military units of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Tajikistan.
  7. Convicted persons on probation shall be supervised by inspection on correctional affairs. Convicted servicemen on probation shall be supervised by command of military units.”

Appeals:

• Right to Counsel: Court sentences which did not enter into legal force can be appealed. These appeals must be made to the court which issued the sentence within 10 days of the announcement of the sentence. Lawyers have a right to appeal against final court decisions within ten working days. Such appeals are sent to Dushanbe to the supreme court. It should be noted that the appeal process is very slow and can take over a year.

Rights in Prison

Conditions of confinement: Art.10(2) CEC 2001: “It shall be strictly prohibited to subject convicted persons to tortures or cruel, inhumane, and degrading his dignity treatment, medical or any other scientific experiments, regardless of his consent, which may endanger his life and health.”

Immigrant detention: Art.7 (2) CEC 2001: “Foreign citizens and stateless persons sentenced by courts of the Republic of Tajikistan may be extradited to a foreign state for execution and further serving of a sentence in accordance with international treaty of the Republic of Tajikistan.”
Art.18 CEC 2001:
“1. Convicted foreign citizens and stateless persons shall have the rights and responsibilities provided by the present Code, as well as by the international legal documents recognized by Tajikistan, legislation on legal status of foreign citizens with exceptions and restrictions specified by the criminal executive, criminal and other legislation.
2. Foreign citizens sentenced to liberty restraint, confinement and deprivation of liberty shall also have the right to communicate with diplomatic representatives and consular offices of their state, but citizens of those states, which do not have diplomatic and consular offices in the Republic of Tajikistan, may communicate with diplomatic representatives of a state, which undertook to protect their interests, or international bodies responsible for their protection.”

Right to medical care in prison:Art.16(5) CEC 2001: “5. Convicted persons have the right to health protection including first medical-sanitary and specialized medical aid in out-patient and in-patient facilities depending on medical prescription as well as the right to material and social provision.”
Art.106 CEC 2001:
“1. Medical-preventative and sanitary aid to convicts in deprivation of liberty places shall be organized and provided in accordance with the Internal regulations rules of correctional institution and legislation of the Republic of Tajikistan.
2. Medical-preventive institutions (hospitals, special psychiatric and tubercular hospitals, medical units) are established for medical care of the convicts, and medical correctional institutions - for detention and out-patient treatment of the convicts suffering tuberculosis, chronic alcoholism and drug addiction, and HIV-infected convicts.
3. Convicted person has a right to turn for consultation and treatment to medical services that require payment. Payment for such services and purchase of the needed medicines shall be made by the convict or his relatives at their own expense. In these cases consultation and treatment shall be conducted at the medical-sanitary unit at the place of penalty serving under supervision of personnel of the medical-sanitary unit.
4. The administration of deprivation of liberty place shall meet necessary sanitary-hygienic and anti-epidemic requirements that provide protection of convicts' health. Persons sentenced to deprivation of liberty shall fulfil requirements of hygiene and sanitary.
5. In case if a convicted person refuses to eat and this leads to threat to his life compulsory feeding according to medical prescriptions is allowed.
6. The order of the medical aid provision, organization and conducting sanitary control, use of medical-preventive, sanitary-preventive institutions and medical personnel of health care bodies shall be defined by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan and the Ministry of Health care of the Republic of Tajikistan.

Mental health care: Prisoners have no specific right to mental health care.

Restriction of rights: Unfortunately, rights are significantly restricted. The US Embassy’s Tajikistan 2017 human rights report highlighted torture and abuse of detainees by security forces, arbitrary detention, political prosecutions of human rights lawyers, forced labour, and appalling prison conditions.

Women’s rights in prison: Art.78 (1) CEC (2001): “There shall be separate keeping in correctional institutions of men from women and minors from adults.”

LGBT Prisoners: LGBT prisoners do not have any specific protection, just as there is no protection for LGBT individuals outside the prison system. LGBT prisoners may face abuse in prison due to rife anti-LGBT sentiment in Tajikistan.25

Mentally Ill Prisoners: Mentally ill prisoners do not have any specific protection.

Juveniles: Art.78 (1) CEC (2001): “There shall be separate keeping in correctional institutions of men from women and minors from adults.” However, in practice, authorities often hold juvenile boys with adult men.
Art.78(4) CEC (2001): “Minors sentenced to deprivation of liberty for deliberate crimes committed while penalty serving, as well as those who systematically and malignantly violate regime of serving a punishment shall be kept separately from other convicts serving the punishment in educational colonies of intensive regime.”

Resources

- Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tajikistan/

- BBC News. (n.d.). Tajikistan Profile. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16201032

- Human Rights Watch. (2022). World Report 2022: Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/tajikistan

- United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (n.d.). Conference on Legal Aid System Development in Tajikistan Held to Mark Fifth Anniversary of State - Agency Legal Aid Center. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/tajikistan/press-releases/conference-legal-aid-system-development-tajikistan-held-mark-fifth-anniversary-state-agency-legal-aid-center

- United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (n.d.). Providing Access to Justice for Citizens in Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/eurasia/stories/providing-access-justice-citizens-tajikistan#:~:text=Free%20legal%20aid%20centers%20have,a%20thousand%20clients%20per%20month.

- Lawyers for Lawyers. (n.d.). Lawyers’ Day in Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://lawyersforlawyers.org/en/lawyers-day-in-tajikistan-3/

- U.S. Department of State. (2023). Tajikistan 2022 Human Rights Report. Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/415610_TAJIKISTAN-2022-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf

- Government of the United Kingdom. (n.d.). Tajikistan Legal and Prison Systems. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tajikistan-prisoner-pack/tajikistan-legal-and-prison-systems

- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (n.d.). General Comment on Article 9. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/CCPR/GConArticle9/TRIAL.pdf

- CABAR Asia. (n.d.). Tajik Experts Oppose the Abolition of the Moratorium on the Death Penalty. Retrieved from https://cabar.asia/en/tajik-experts-oppose-the-abolition-of-the-moratorium-on-the-death-penalty

- Lawyers for Lawyers & International Bar Association. (2021). UPR Submission: Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://lawyersforlawyers.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/UPR-Tajikistan-L4L-and-IBA-March-2021-final-version.pdf

- U.S. Embassy in Tajikistan. (2017). Tajikistan Human Rights Report 2017. Retrieved from https://tj.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/143/TAJIKISTAN-HRR-2017-ENG-FINAL.pdf

- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (n.d.). Joint Submission 4 – Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/lib-docs/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/TJ/JS4-JointSubmission4-eng.pdf