https://defensewiki.ibj.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Jsalome5&feedformat=atomCriminal Defense Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T12:29:11ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.34.1https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Hong_Kong&diff=381119Hong Kong2023-10-04T11:36:19Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|Hong Kong}}<br />
<br />
==Introduction== <br />
===Type of System=== <br />
The legal system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (the '''HKSAR''') differs from that of the majority of the People’s Republic of China (the ''PRC'') and is based on the common law. This is because Hong Kong was previously a British colony. On 1 July 1997 Hong Kong was handed over to the PRC.<br />
<br />
However, Article 57 of the National Security Law (''NSL'') allows the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and other related national laws to some cases. <ref> See the full text of the NSL at: https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20202448e/egn2020244872.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===The Basic Law and the Continuation of the Existing Legal System after 1 July 1997=== <br />
The constitutional framework of the HKSAR is provided by the Basic Law. It has been enacted by the National People’s Congress (the NPC) of the PRC under Article 31 of the Chinese Constitution.<br />
<br />
The Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the PRC on the Question of Hong Kong (the Joint Declaration) and the Basic Law guarantee the continuance of the pre-existing legal system after the PRC regained sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
The laws in force in Hong Kong before 1 July 1997 continued to apply in the HKSAR after that date except for those which contravened the Basic Law. Some legislation was adapted to ensure compliance with the Basic Law and to reflect Hong Kong’s status as a Special Administrative Region of the PRC.<br />
<br />
===The Courts=== <br />
The existing courts and tribunals were re-established on 1 July 1997 although some were renamed. The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was established to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal. All serving judges were reappointed by the HKSAR’s Chief Executive on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
Pursuant to the Basic Law, judges from other common law jurisdictions may be invited to sit on the Court of Final Appeal.<br />
<br />
The courts in Hong Kong are the following:<br />
*Magistrates’ Court<br />
*District Court<br />
*Court of First Instance (the CFI)<br />
*Court of Appeal<br />
*Court of Final Appeal<br />
<br />
The Supreme People’s Court of the PRC has the right of adjudication in cases under Article 56 of the NSL.<br />
<br />
===The Laws=== <br />
The laws in force in the HKSAR are:<br />
*(a) the Basic Law; <ref> See the full text of the Basic Law at: http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/text/en/basiclawtext/ </ref><br />
*(b) the 13 national laws listed in Annex III to the Basic Law as applied to the HKSAR by way of promulgation or legislation;<br />
*(c) the laws in force before 1 July 1997, including the common law, rules of equity, customary law and statutory law, other than those not adopted as laws of the HKSAR by the NPC Standing Committee because they contravene the Basic Law (these laws apply irrespective of whether the conduct occurred prior to 1 July 2007); and<br />
*(d) laws enacted by the HKSAR’s legislature.<br />
<br />
Only national laws relating to defence, foreign affairs or other matters outside the HKSAR’s autonomy may be added to Annex III to the Basic Law. <br />
<br />
All legislation in force in the HKSAR is bilingual. The Chinese and English language versions are equally authentic. All legislation is published in a hard-copy loose-leaf edition and is also available at www.legislation.gov.hk. Preparations are now under way for the establishment of an electronic legislation database with legal status pursuant to the Legislation Publication Ordinance of 2011.<br />
<br />
=== The legal aid situation in Hong Kong === <br />
====Publicly funded legal aid ====<br />
Publicly funded legal aid services are provided through the Legal Aid Department and the Duty Lawyer Service, in accordance with the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91)<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/07BCC0B0FE1EC8A1482575EE0037F553/$FILE/CAP_91_e_b5.pdf </ref> and the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) (the ''Legal Aid Rules'').<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D2405B17B91E99B1482575EE004F1B6D/$FILE/CAP_221D_e_b5.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Eligible applicants receive legal aid through the provision of the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, of a barrister. The Legal Aid Department provides legal representation to eligible applicants in criminal and some civil proceedings. <ref> See the website of the Legal Aid Department at www.lad.gov.hk </ref><br />
<br />
Legal aid is available for cases in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal and the Court of Final Appeal. It is also available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates' Courts.<br />
Any person who is a party to eligible court proceedings may apply for legal aid. Legal aid will be granted if the applicant is able to satisfy the statutory criteria as to financial eligibility and the merits for taking or defending the legal proceedings.<br />
<br />
Where a legal aid certificate is granted, the Director of Legal Aid (the '''Director''') may act for the aided person through lawyers employed in the Legal Aid Department. If the Director does not act for the aided person, he or the aided person may select a solicitor or counsel to act. The Director maintains separate panels of counsel and solicitors who are willing to investigate, report and give opinions on applications for legal aid and to act for aided persons. Aided persons may only select lawyers who are members of one of those panels.<ref> See section 13(3) of Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
==== Bar Free Legal Services Scheme ====<br />
Bar Free Legal Services Scheme only offers to the applicants whose applications to the Legal Aid Department have formally been rejected. Barristers who have volunteered to help the BFLSS are placed on a panel. The panel comprises barristers with a range of experience and specialisations. Each of them has offered their services free of charge for 3 days or 20 hours each year. No barrister is obliged to take on a particular case under the BFLSS. Barristers on the Panel offer their services free of charge, it may not always be possible for the BFLSS to assist. <ref> See Bar Free Legal Services Scheme https://www.hkba.org/content/bar-free-legal-services-scheme </ref><br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme covers some civil proceedings in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal, the Court of Final Appeal, certain coroner’s inquests and the Mental Health Review Tribunal. It does not cover civil cases such as probate cases and disputes between shareholders or business partners.<br />
<br />
In order to successfully apply for legal aid through the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme, an applicant must pass the merits test and the means test. The means test is based on financial resources and in order to be eligible an applicant’s financial resources must not exceed the financial eligibility limit. The Director may waive the upper financial eligibility limit in meritorious cases involving a breach of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (the '''BORO''')<ref> See the full text of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/AE5E078A7CF8E845482575EE007916D8/$FILE/CAP_383_e_b5.pdf </ref> or an inconsistency with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the '''ICCPR''').<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights at http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b3aa0.pdf </ref> <br />
<br />
Applicants must satisfy a merits test by demonstrating that there are reasonable grounds for taking or defending proceedings.<br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme provides legal assistance to persons whose financial resources exceed the upper limit allowed under the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme but whose resources are nevertheless below a certain higher eligibility limit. <br />
<br />
Legal aid is available under the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme for claims for example involving personal injury or death, or medical, dental and legal professional negligence if the claim is likely to exceed a certain threshold. It also covers any claim under the Employees’ Compensation Ordinance and representation for employees in any appeal against an award made by the Labour Tribunal. <br />
<br />
Applicants for the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme are required to pass a means test (which has a higher financial threshold) and the merits test by demonstrating reasonable grounds for taking proceedings. It is not available to people who are defending proceedings, other than defence of counterclaims.<ref> See Part 1 of Schedule 3 to Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, the yearly quota of civil cases overall possibly handled by individual lawyers will be decreased. The quota for barristers will decrease from 20 cases yearly to 15 cases yearly (25% decrease). The quota for solicitors will decrease from 35 cases yearly to 30 cases yearly (15% decrease). <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref><br />
<br />
====Criminal Legal Aid ==== <br />
Criminal legal aid provides the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, a barrister, to represent an accused person. It is available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates’ Court, cases tried in the District Court or CFI, and for all criminal appeals.<br />
<br />
Legal aid is not available in the Magistrates’ Court for cases other than committal proceedings. Assistance might nevertheless be provided in the Magistrates’ Court by the Duty Lawyer Scheme (discussed below).<br />
<br />
Applicants for criminal legal aid through the Legal Aid Department are required to pass: <br />
*(a) a means test (although if an applicant’s financial resources exceed the financial eligibility limit, the Director may waive the upper limit if satisfied that it is in the interests of justice to do so and subject to payment by the applicant of a contribution on higher rates calculated in accordance with the applicant’s financial resources); and <br />
*(b) a merits test (for trials in the District Court and the CFI, legal aid will be granted if it is desirable in the interests of justice to do so; for appeal cases, legal aid will be granted if there are valid grounds for appeal and it is in the interests of justice to do so).<br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, legal aid applicants will have to accept the lawyers assigned by the Department of Legal Aid unless there are “exceptional circumstances” (for example the nominated lawyers have already represented the representatives in lower courts), and aid recipients will no longer be able to choose their own lawyers, according to a consultation paper submitted to the legislature last week. <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref> <ref> ILegal aid reform: Critics fear right to choose lawyer will be undermined but Hong Kong gov’t advisor says plan will be ‘fairer’ https://hongkongfp.com/2021/10/25/legal-aid-reform-critics-fear-right-to-choose-lawyer-will-be-undermined-but-hong-kong-govt-advisor-says-plan-will-be-fairer/ </ref><br />
<br />
====Duty Lawyer Service==== <br />
The Duty Lawyer Service operates the Duty Lawyer Scheme and the Free Legal Advice Scheme.<br />
<ref> See Duty Lawyer Service website at http://www.dutylawyer.org.hk/en/free/free.asp </ref><br />
The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation by qualified lawyers in private practice to eligible defendants appearing in all Magistrates’ Courts, Juvenile Courts and Coroners Courts. Legal aid is not available in Magistrates' Courts except for committal proceedings. The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation to eligible defendants appearing in Magistrates Courts.<br />
<br />
The Free Legal Advice Scheme provides preliminary legal advice to members of the public. The Scheme will not offer any follow up service or representation to applicants. There is no means test and the service is free of charge. Lawyers participate in the scheme on a voluntary basis. <br />
<br />
===Number of lawyers (criminal/civil) === <br />
Law is practised in the HKSAR by both solicitors and barristers.<br />
<br />
In total, there are more than 12,000 practising solicitors and barristers. At the end of May 2022, 939 local solicitor firms and 83 foreign law firms were operating in Hong Kong, including more than half of the Global 100 law firms <ref> https://research.hktdc.com/en/article/MzEzODc5NTk5#:~:text=Hong%20Kong%20is%20the%20international,the%20Global%20100%20law%20firms. </ref><br />
<br />
Both professions are independently governed by professional regulatory bodies in Hong Kong. The Law Society of Hong Kong and the Bar Association of Hong Kong govern the professions of solicitors and barristers respectively.<br />
<br />
==Sources of a defendant's rights== <br />
===National Sources of Defendant's rights=== <br />
Chapter III of the Basic Law prescribes fundamental rights and freedoms in the HKSAR. The BORO also gives domestic effect to the provisions of the ICCPR as applied to the HKSAR. There is no definition of a resident for the purposes of the rights. The scope of each right varies; some are applicable to only "permanent residents" who have a right of abode, whilst other rights apply to everyone. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law sets out fundamental rights in Articles 24 to 42. These include equality before the law and freedom of speech.<ref> Article 27, Basic Law. </ref> <br />
<br />
===International Sources of a defendant's rights=== <br />
Under the Basic Law, multilateral treaties can apply to the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
Article 39 of the Basic Law provides that the provisions of the ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the ICESCR)<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at http://www.cmab.gov.hk/doc/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/icescr.doc </ref> as applied to the HKSAR shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the HKSAR. The ICESCR has not incorporated into local legislation so it is not enforceable. <ref> Ubamaka [2012] HKCFA 87 at §4 https://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UBAMAKA-EDWARD-WILSON-v.-SECRETARY-FOR-SECURITY-AND-ANOTHER.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Articles 4 and 5 of the BORO provide that the freedom of the person is inviolable. No resident may be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful arrest, detention or imprisonment. Arbitrary or unlawful search of the body of any resident or deprivation or restriction of the freedom of the person is prohibited. Article 28 of the Basic Law prohibits torture of any resident or arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of the life of any resident. <br />
<br />
== Police Procedures == <br />
=== Police Questioning === <br />
The Hong Kong Police Force has issued a guidance note to arrested persons in relation to arrest and detention.<ref> See http://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/pol/en/Pol-1128.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Section 54 of the Police Force Ordinance (the '''PFO''')<ref> See the full text of the Police Force Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/7E4D875F6BBDF825482575EE0050597B/$FILE/CAP_232_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that police officers have the power to stop an individual who is acting in a suspicious manner, or an individual reasonably suspected to have committed, be about to commit or be intending to commit any offence. Police may demand that the individual produce identification and may detain the individual for a reasonable period while a police officer enquires about whether or not they have committed an offence. For individuals acting in a suspicious manner, police officers may search the person for anything that may present a danger to the police office or detain them for a reasonably required period where considered necessary. For an individual reasonably suspected of having committed, being about to, or intending to commit any offence, police may search them for anything of value to the investigation and detain them for a period considered reasonable. <br />
<br />
A suspect may not be compelled to answer any questions as suspects enjoy the right to silence.<ref> Rice v Connolly [1996] 3 WLR 17.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Arrest, Search and Seizure Laws === <br />
==== Arrest ==== <br />
'''(a) Police Arrest'''<br />
Subsections 50(1), 50(1A) and 50(1B) of the PFO provide broad powers of arrest where a police officer has a reasonable belief that a person will be charged or a reasonable suspicion of a person’s guilt of any offence:<br />
*(i)with a sentence fixed by law, such as a mandatory sentence; <br />
*(ii)for which a person on first conviction could be sentenced to imprisonment; <br />
*(iii)where the service of a summons would be impracticable; or<br />
*(iv)if the person is liable for deportation.<br />
Under section 50(1) of the PFO, an officer must be able to point to circumstances or events which created or caused the reasonable suspicion that an offence had been or was going to be committed. A reasonable suspicion is more than a mere possibility of guilt but it is not necessary to show a prima facie case that the arrested person is guilty. The test is an objective test. <ref> R v Cheung Wai-wan and Wan Sze-shing v. A-G [1980] HKLR 550.</ref><br />
<br />
'''(b) Citizen's Powers of Arrest''' <br />
Sections 101 and 101A of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (the CPO) provide citizens with the power to arrest a person they reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence for which:<br />
*(i) the sentence is fixed by law; or <br />
*(ii) a person may be sentenced to imprisonment of more than 12 months. <br />
<br />
There is also a common law citizen's power to arrest for breach of the peace. <br />
<br />
'''(c) General principles of Arrest by police officer''' <br />
At the time of arrest the person should be informed of the reason for the arrest. This is required under both the common law<ref> Christie v Leachinsky [1947] AC 573, HL </ref> and Article 5(2) of the BORO. The circumstances in which it is not necessary to notify a person of the reason for their arrest are generally limited to situations when: <br />
*(i) giving the reason might make the arrest more difficult to effect;<ref> R v Ku Kat-sui [1989] 2 HKC 526, HC. </ref><br />
*(ii) the arrested person is resisting arrest to the effect of making it impracticable to give the reason;<ref> HKSAR v Ip Kenneth [2006] 2 HKLRD 433. </ref> or <br />
*(iii) the arrested person is already aware of the reason for the arrest.<ref>Ibid</ref><br />
<br />
Physical force, appropriate conduct or words must be used to make it clear that an arrest is occurring. It must be made clear to the arrested person that he is not free to go.<ref> Shaabin Bin Hussein v Chong Fook-kam [1970] AC 942, PC. </ref> Any person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of crime or in effecting or assisting in the lawful arrest of offenders or suspected offenders or of persons unlawfully at large.<ref> See section 101A(1) of Cap 221.</ref><br />
<br />
Section 50(2) of the PFO provides that an officer may use all means necessary to effect the arrest if the suspect forcibly resists or attempts to evade it.<br />
<br />
Section 40(5) of the PFO provides that police have the right to search the arrested person or the premises in which the person was arrested if a lawful arrest is made. They also have the right to take items found in any such search if the arresting officer reasonably expects those items to be of value in the investigation.<br />
<br />
==== Search and seizure ==== <br />
Premises in the HKSAR may be searched with or without a warrant. Warrants may be issued under section 50(7) of the PFO by a magistrate. These allow police to enter, search for and seize property. There must be reasonable grounds to suspect that an item of value to an investigation may be located within premises in order for a warrant to be issued. <br />
<br />
There are both common law and statutory authorities giving police powers to search premises without a warrant. The common law power allows police to search the area where an individual was arrested and to seize any appropriate item. This power should only be exercised when it is reasonably necessary and where it is reasonably impractical to obtain a search warrant. Sections 50(3), (4), (5) and (6) of the PFO provide police with further powers of search in order to make an arrest or search for items which are of value to the investigation.<br />
<br />
Section 10C of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) (the ICAC Ordinance)<ref> See the full text of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurAllEngDoc/A3E9ED78744D8631482575EE004CB37D/$FILE/CAP_204_e_b5.pdf </ref> allows officers of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (the ICAC) to search the premises where an individual is arrested whom they reasonably suspect is guilty of an offence under the ICAC Ordinance.<br />
<br />
===Line-ups (identification parades) and other identification procedures=== <br />
There are no statutory rules regarding the conduct of identification parades in the HKSAR. There are nevertheless official police procedures which are set out in the Police Force Procedures Manual. <br />
<br />
An identification parade is generally composed of a suspect and eight actors of similar appearance. It is organised and conducted by a senior police officer not involved in the investigation of the case. There must be no suggestion to witnesses regarding which person is the suspect. The suspect’s legal advisor can be present.<br />
<br />
Confrontation identification, group identification or dock identification might be applicable if the accused refuses or is otherwise unable to participate in an identification parade. Confrontation identification involves the identification of a suspect immediately after an offence has been committed. Group identification involves the identification of a suspect from a group between apprehension and trial. Dock identification involves the identification of a suspect at trial.<br />
<br />
===Interrogation=== <br />
The process of interrogation in the HKSAR is governed by the 1992 Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Making of Statements (the Rules). The Rules provide that statements must be voluntary and that persons in authority must not use threats, promises or deception. A failure to comply with the Rules may result in the evidence being inadmissible. Judges are entitled to admit evidence at their discretion which the Rules would classify as inadmissible when necessary to ensure a fair trial for the accused but rarely need to exercise such discretion in practice.<br />
<br />
Rule 1 of the Rules provides that during the initial investigation stage police officers are entitled to question any person who they think may have useful information even if they are not a suspect. <br />
<br />
Rule 2 of the Rules provides that police officers must caution the individual before putting more questions to them which relate to the offence once there is evidence that would afford reasonable grounds for suspecting that the individual has committed an offence. If the individual wishes to continue talking after receiving the caution then a contemporaneous record of proceedings must be kept. As far as practicable this record must record the time and place of the questioning and list the persons present.<br />
<br />
Rule 3(a) of the Rules provides a format for cautioning the suspect if they are charged or informed that they may be prosecuted for an offence. The caution is in the following form: <br />
:Do you wish to say anything? You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say will be taken down in writing and may be given in evidence.<br />
<br />
A contemporaneous record must be kept of this questioning. <br />
<br />
Rule 6(a) of the Rules provides that wherever possible all interviews should be conducted in the mother tongue of the individual being questioned.<br />
<br />
Direction 8(1) of the Rules provides that individuals in custody or present with the police and under investigation should be allowed to speak to their friends or family by telephone and consult and communicate privately with their lawyer in writing or on the telephone provided that it will not cause an unreasonable delay or hindrance to the investigation or the administration of justice. <br />
<br />
==Police Powers== <br />
=== Stopping and Detaining a suspect=== <br />
Article 5 of the BORO and Article 28 of the Basic Law require restraint of a person to be legally authorised. <br />
<br />
Section 54 of the PFO provides that an officer may stop and detain for a reasonable period and search as appropriate:<br />
*(a) any person acting in a suspicious manner; or <br />
*(b) anyone whom the police reasonably suspect of having committed or being about to commit or intending to commit an offence.<br />
<br />
There is no power of arrest under section 54 of the PFO. The general powers of arrest are set out in section 50(1) of the PFO. An arrest must conform to these requirements.<br />
<br />
===Questioning a suspect pre-arrest=== <br />
The right to silence exists both before and after arrest and it is inappropriate to use an individual’s silence against them in any way.<ref> Lee Fuk Hing v HKSAR (2004) 7 HKCFAR 600.</ref> However, sections 3 and 4 of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455)<ref> See the full text of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/4D1FF665EFF4E8B0482575EF0009EBA1/$FILE/CAP_455_e_b5.pdf </ref> override this right: a CFI judge may make an order to compel individuals to answer questions relating to the investigation of organised crime. In addition, section 14 of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201)<ref> See the full text of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurEngOrd/660A25EA15B8C9D6482575EE004C5BF1/$FILE/CAP_201_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that ICAC may request a judge in a bribe investigation to order an individual to provide a statement explaining the source of money or property. <br />
<br />
== Pre Trial Procedures == <br />
A number of principles of defence, including those provided by the Basic Law, have been given effect through the enactment of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Cap 221) (the CPO) and the Legal Aid Rules. Other principles have been given effect by way of the common law. These principles are not distinct. For example, Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that "everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law". This principle is given practical effect in the CPO. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law guarantees principles of defence including:<br />
*(a) equality before the courts (Article 10);<br />
*(b) the right to a fair and public trial by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law (Article 10);<br />
*(c) the right to trial by jury in the most serious cases;<br />
*(d) the presumption of innocence (Article 11);<br />
*(e) the burden of proof lies with the prosecution;<br />
*(f) the standard of proof is ‘beyond reasonable doubt’;<br />
*(g) the right to prompt and detailed information as to the nature and cause of the charge;<br />
*(h) adequate time for preparation of the defence case;<br />
*(i) the right not to be tried or punished for an offence for which a suspect has already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law (Article 11);<br />
*(j) the right to legal representation;<br />
*(k) the right to be tried without undue delay;<br />
*(l) the right to legal assistance;<br />
*(m) the right to call witnesses and secure their presence in court;<br />
*(n) the right to cross-examine prosecution witnesses;<br />
*(o) the right to have the free service of an interpreter;<br />
*(p) the right to remain silent in court;<br />
*(q) the right to appeal either or both of conviction and sentence; and<br />
*(r) the limited right to bail pending trial or appeal depending on the gravity of the offence and surrounding circumstances.<br />
the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
*(s) the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
<br />
==Rights of the accused at all times== <br />
===Double jeopardy===<br />
Article 11(6) of the BORO provides that no one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which they have already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Presumption of innocence=== <br />
Article 11(1) of the BORO provides for the presumption of innocence. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. <br />
<br />
=== Right against self-incrimination=== <br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that the defendant has the right no to be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt. <br />
<br />
=== Witnesses === <br />
The prosecution and the defendant may use witness evidence to support their case. Article 11(2)(e) of the BORO provides the defendant with the right to examine or have examined witnesses brought against them and to have witnesses present on their behalf. <br />
<br />
===Rights during trial=== <br />
Article 11(2) (f) of the BORO provides that accused persons have the right to an interpreter during the trial if they cannot speak or understand the language used in court. <br />
<br />
===Right to an appeal=== <br />
Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to have their conviction and sentence reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law (meaning an appellate court or tribunal). <br />
<br />
===Ex-post facto punishment (retrospective punishment)=== <br />
Article 12 of the BORO provides that there is no retrospective punishment in the HKSAR for acts or omissions which did not constitute a criminal offence at the time committed. Heavier penalties cannot be imposed other than those applicable at the time the offence was committed. <br />
<br />
==Fair trial Rights == <br />
Article 87 of the Basic Law provides that all defendants are guaranteed the right to a fair trial without delay and that they shall be presumed innocent until convicted. <br />
<br />
===Right to counsel=== <br />
Article 11(2)(d) of the Basic Law provides that all persons in the HKSAR have the right to seek legal assistance. All individuals have the right to defend themselves through legal assistance of their own choosing. Individuals have the right to legal assistance which should be without payment if they do not have sufficient means to pay. Further, Article 11(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused persons must be given adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence and communicate with their chosen counsel. <br />
<br />
===Right to habeas corpus===<br />
Article 22A of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4)<ref> See the full text of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165d2fee3fa94825755e0033e532/E3C89D7AC07002EE482575EE002A70D9/$FILE/CAP_4_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that an application for a habeas corpus writ may be made to the CFI alleging that an applicant is being unlawfully detained and requesting the issuing of a writ of habeas corpus. The detained individual, or any other person on their behalf can make an application. As soon as practicable after receiving the application the CFI must inquire into the allegation. All proceedings must be conducted in open court. If satisfied that the application has substance the CFI can order the issue of a writ of habeas corpus directing that the person with custody over the applicant bring the applicant before the Court at a specified date to certify the grounds for detention or bring the person with custody over the applicant to Court to justify the lawfulness of the detention. If satisfied that the application has no substance the CFI may dismiss it.<br />
<br />
===Right to notice of charges===<br />
Article 11(2)(a) of the BORO provides that all individuals should be informed of the nature and cause of the charges against them and in detail in a language they can understand. <br />
<br />
===Right to non-self incrimination===<br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that individuals cannot be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt.<br />
<br />
===Right to a fair and speedy trial===<br />
Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge must promptly be brought before a judge or legal officer. Individuals are entitled to a trial within a reasonable time or to release from detention. Further, Article 5(4) of the BORO provides that individuals deprived of their liberty are entitled to initiate proceedings before a court to decide the lawfulness of their detention. Article 5(5) of the BORO provides that individuals who are unlawfully arrested or detained have enforceable rights to compensation. Article 11(2)(c) of the BORO provides further rights to be tried without undue delay.<br />
<br />
===Rights pre-trial===<br />
Article 6(2)(a) of the BORO provides that accused persons shall be segregated from convicted persons and subject to separate treatment, save in exceptional circumstances. Further, 6(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused juveniles must be separated from adults and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication. Articles 6(3) and 11(3) of the BORO provide that the procedure for juveniles should take into account their age and the desirability of promoting their rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
===Right to an independent and impartial court ===<br />
Article 10 of the BORO provides that individuals have the right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law and to a fair and public hearing. All persons are equal before the courts and tribunals. In some instances the public and press may be excluded from all or part of the trial. <br />
<br />
===Right to disclosure===<br />
Defendants have the right to receive relevant information from the prosecution regarding their cases even if the information may be injurious to the prosecution’s claim. The prosecution is required to inform the defendant of any discreditable behaviour of a prosecution witness that may affect their assessment as a witness. Information may be withheld from the defendant if considered prejudicial to the public interest. This duty of disclosure is both a statutory and common law duty. The statutory source of this duty is provided in Article 39 and 87 of the Basic Law and Article 11(2) of the BORO. The common law duty is derived from the defendant’s right to a fair trial which implies that a defendant should possess adequate knowledge of the prosecution’s case. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, under Article 14 of the National Security Law (NSL), information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
==Rights in prison==<br />
The General Rules for the Government of Prisons (the Prison Rules)<ref> See the full text of the General Rules for the Government of Prisons at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/C91C6D774F99548F482575EE0050CA96/$FILE/CAP_234A_e_b5.pdf </ref> outlines the general conditions of prisons in the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Conditions of confinement===<br />
Rule 54 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisoners have the right to petition the Chief Executive during the first year of their sentence and once every year thereafter unless the Superintendent in charge of the relevant prison considers that there is sufficient cause to justify additional petitions. The Prison Rules do not limit the scope of the subject matter in respect of which a prisoner may petition.<br />
<br />
===Medical care=== <br />
Rule 5 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisons are required to have a hospital or another designated place for the reception of sick prisoners. All prisoners undergo a physical examination on admission that is conducted as soon as possible after prisoners are admitted. Rule 14 of the Prison Rules provides that prisoners must be examined separately by a medical officer who will create a record on the state of their health. The physical examination should be conducted on the date of admission into prison or within 24 hours of admission. Prisoners may obtain medical treatment in prison or in one of the two custodial wards at the government hospital. Prisoners have access to dental care and specialist treatment if required. <br />
<br />
===Women’s rights=== <br />
Rules 6, 7 and 10 of the Prison Rules provide that female prisoners must be kept in premises entirely separate from male prisoners. Female premises must be controlled by female officers. Male officers may only enter female premises on duty and in the company of a female officer. Female prisoners should only be searched by female officers. <br />
Rule 21 of the Prison Rules contains further rights for female prisoners with children. The child of a female prisoner may be received into prison with its mother during the normal lactation period. The child can remain with the mother until a medical officer certifies that the child is in a condition fit to be removed. The medical officer will report to the Commissioner of prisons as to whether it is necessary or desirable for the child to remain in the prison once the child reaches nine months or is over that age. No child over the age of three years may remain in prison. <br />
<br />
==Court procedures== <br />
===Preliminary investigation and trial=== <br />
Police generally decide whether to charge a suspect. Section 52(1) of the PFO provides that a defendant must be brought before a magistrate within 48 hours and without unreasonable delay if charged. During this period lawyers should deal with the police officers in charge of the case. A magistrate has the responsibility to decide whether to issue bail or remand the defendant into custody. The matter is then sent to the prosecution’s office. The prosecution will decide to proceed with the same charge, amend the charge or withdraw the charge completely. When deciding whether to charge or not the prosecution must take into account the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice.<ref> See the full text of the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/ajls/papers/aj0203cb2-sppp-e-scan.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===Bail=== <br />
Bail means release of a person from detention based on an undertaking, with or without conditions, to surrender to custody as ordered by the court or directed by the police. There is a presumption of entitlement to bail. Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that<br />
<br />
:it shall not be the general rule that persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be subject to guarantees to appear for trial.<br />
<br />
However, Article 42(2) of the NSL rejects the presumption of for cases governed by the NSL: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
So far, the prosecution still cannot ask for review (by CA or CFA) of the CFI judge’s decision to release a Defendant on bail even under the National Security Law <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at § 6 https://legalref.judiciary.hk/lrs/common/search/search_result_detail_frame.jsp?DIS=133491&QS=%2B&TP=JU&ILAN=en </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
Section 52 of the PFO allows police to grant bail if the offence is not serious and there is no reason to detain the defendant. The individual will be charged and appear before a magistrate if police bail is not given. The defendant will be remanded into police custody or gaol custody. Any time on remand will count towards a subsequent custodial sentence.<br />
<br />
Two forms of bail are available to the defendant: <br />
*(a) Police bail<br />
The individual will generally be granted bail by the police in charge of the station after they are charged. If the charge is very serious bail may not be granted by the officer. Provided the charge is not yet laid, an individual may be released on cash bail or recognisance that they will return to the police station if required. <br />
*(b) Magistrates’ bail<br />
Police bail will expire once an individual is brought in front of a magistrate and magistrates’ bail will then apply. Magistrates’ bail is given generally and may include certain conditions. Bail may not be given if it is likely that the individual will interfere with witnesses, the offence is serious or there is a strong likelihood that the individual will abscond. Part 1A of the CPO contains the rules that relate to magistrates’ bail. If an individual is charged with murder or treason they will need to seek bail from a CFI judge.<br />
<br />
The presumption in favour of bail in Part 9D(1) of the CPO is “[subject] to this section and section 9G”. Part 9D(2) of the CPO states that the grant of bail may be subject to conditions. Part 9G(1) of CPO lists the possible basis for refusing bail. If such grounds are not positively made out, bail is granted. The rule embodies the presumption in favour of bail. <br />
<br />
For cases governed by the NSL, that presumption is excluded in the first instance by Section 42(2) of NSL. The starting-point is that no bail shall be granted unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the accused “will not continue to commit acts endangering national security”. Plainly, it introduces a considerably more stringent threshold requirement. Another point of distinction is that Section 42(2) of NSL does not refer to the risk of committing an offence but to a risk that the accused will “continue” to “commit acts endangering national security” if granted bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §53 </ref> .The judge, in answering the NSL 42(2) question, may decide that in all the circumstances including the factors listed in Section 9D(2) and 9G(2) CPO, and having duly considered possible bail conditions, he or she does not have sufficient grounds for believing that the defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security and thus refuse bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §57 & 58 </ref>. To conclude, Section 42(2) NSL imports a stringent threshold requirement for bail applications <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §70 </ref> .<br />
<br />
It should be noted that in the NSL cases, the rules governing bail in general are subject to any specific changes effected by NSL 42(2) which are<br />
made to prevail by Section 62 of NSL.<br />
<br />
===Assessing the admissibility of evidence=== <br />
A voir dire will be held in the CFI if issues arise regarding the admissibility of evidence. This is a mini trial to determine the admissibility of evidence and is generally held in the absence of a jury. The preferred method for the Magistrates’ and District Court to assess the admissibility of evidence is the ‘alternative procedure’. In this method questions are determined within the trial rather than in a separate mini trial. This is possible as these courts do not involve a jury. This is mandatory where a so-called double-barrelled attack is made by the defence or the accused not only denies making the confession, but also asserts that the police mistreated him <ref> Thongjai & Anor v The Queen CACC608/1994 at line 13 of p.7 </ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Trial === <br />
Trials in the Magistrates’ Court take place in front of a magistrate. The magistrate is not under any obligation to provide reasons for their verdict but will often do so in practice. Magistrates are required to provide reasons when deciding an appeal case. Trials in District Court are before a single Judge. District Court judges must supply reasons within 21 days of delivering a judgment.<br />
<br />
Trials in the CFI will be conducted before a jury. NSL cases are the exception. Section 4 of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3)<ref> See the full text of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/9B7D35E42635E9EA482575EE002A5989/$FILE/CAP_3_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that jurors must be between the ages of 21 and 65 years, be a resident in the HKSAR, be of sound mind, not be affected by blindness, deafness or other disabilities affecting service, be of good character and have sufficient knowledge of the English language.<br />
<br />
Once the jury is empanelled the case begins with the prosecution explaining the offence and facts to the jury and identifying the witnesses. The prosecution will then call on the prosecution witnesses to give evidence and the witnesses may be cross-examined by the defence counsel. After the prosecution has pleaded their case the defence may make a “no case” submission. The judge or magistrate must direct the jury to acquit the defendant if the prosecution case, even taken at its highest, would not allow a jury to convict the defendant. If there is no ‘no-case’ submission, the defence counsel then presents their case. Following this, the both parties may make a closing submission. The judge will sum up the facts of the case and direct the jury who will deliberate their verdict. The jury will deliver their verdict and the judge will decide on sentencing appropriately.<br />
<br />
===Assessing=== <br />
All matters commence in the Magistrates’ Court. The prosecution sends the case to be heard in the appropriate court depending on the maximum sentence available for the crime - the Magistrates' Court needs to determine the correct court to hear the case. The Magistrates’ Court will hear the case if the maximum sentence is two years or less. If the maximum sentence is seven years or less the case will be heard in the District Court. Other cases will be heard in the CFI where there is no limit to the maximum penalty available.<br />
<br />
===Sentencing===<br />
Sentencing will take place after the offender has been convicted following the jury trial. There are statutory penalties for the majority of offences which consist of a term of imprisonment or a fine. Certain offences such as murder, manslaughter and common law conspiracy are common law offences. Murder has a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment. Sections 2 and 7 of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212)<ref> See the full text of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/43CA4DC0171D9224482575EE004D5CE1/$FILE/CAP_212_e_b5.pdf </ref> provide that manslaughter has a discretionary life imprisonment penalty. Sentencing will take place by a judge in the court that is considered most appropriate.<br />
<br />
*(a) Crimes that have a maximum of two years imprisonment and a fine of $100,000 will generally be heard in the Magistrates’ Court.<br />
*(b) Crimes that have a maximum of seven years imprisonment and no fine limit will be heard in the District Court.<br />
*(c) Crimes that have a maximum sentencing above those listed will be heard in the CFI. <br />
<br />
Maximum sentences are reserved for the most severe offences.<ref> R v Pang Chun-Wai [1993] 1 HKC 233</ref> Sentences may be discounted. A discounted sentence is generally awarded to an early guilty plea. The fact that a defendant has challenged the evidence against them and lost does not preclude them from receiving a discount.<br />
<br />
===Penalties=== <br />
Penalties other than imprisonment are also available: <br />
====Bind-over orders==== <br />
A bind-over order is a promise by the defendant to keep the peace or be of good behaviour and not commit an offence for a specified period of time. If the offence is committed during the specified period then the accused or their surety must pay a sum of money or they may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment. <br />
<br />
====Community service orders==== <br />
A community service order may be made pursuant to the Community Service Orders Ordinance (Cap 378) if the accused is 14 years of age or older.<ref> HKSAR v Chow Chak Man and Another [1999] 2 HKC 659, CA.</ref> The community service order may be for a maximum of 240 hours of unpaid work over a period of 12 months. Community service orders may only be given with the consent of the accused.<br />
<br />
====Compensation orders====<br />
Section 98 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227)<ref> See the full text of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/FCE2EE462FE99FF0482575EE004FC664/$FILE/CAP_227_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that a magistrate may order an offender to pay compensation to the victim if the magistrate thinks that the paying of compensation is reasonable. Compensation orders are available for personal injury, and loss or damage to property. There is a compensation limit of $100,000. A compensation order is an addition to the main sentence and does not replace it.<br />
<br />
====Confiscation orders====<br />
Confiscation orders apply to drug trafficking and organised crime offences. The CFI and the District Court may order that the proceeds of criminal activity be confiscated.<br />
<br />
====Young defendants====<br />
Defendants who are male and aged between fourteen and twenty-five years may be sentenced to a detention centre order for a period of between three to twelve months in a centre which specialises in receiving young offenders. <br />
<br />
The Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap 225)<ref> See the full text of the Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap25) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D9FF47BCCCF15547482575EE004F6ABE/$FILE/CAP_225_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that young males aged between ten and fifteen years may be sentenced to attend reformatory school for a period of between one to three years. <br />
<br />
The Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 567)<ref> See the full text of the Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr0001/english/ord/ord011-01-e.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty-one years may be ordered to attend a rehabilitation centre in which they are to reside after studying, working or engaging in other approved activities<br />
<br />
The Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280)<ref> See the full text of the Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/6400D7B668DEA1DF482575EE00565EDB/$FILE/CAP_280_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty years may be detained in a training centre to undergo a period of training to reform the offender’s character.<br />
<br />
====Rehabilitation====<br />
Convicted persons may be sentenced to spend a period of between two to twelve months in a drug addiction treatment centre. Defendants must be assessed in order to determine their suitability for the cure and rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
====Disqualification of political rights====<br />
This is available in the NSL cases. <br />
<br />
===Appeals===<br />
There is no common law right to an appeal in the HKSAR to the effect that appeals must be made pursuant to an applicable Ordinance.<br />
<br />
A magistrate’s decision is appealed to the CFI. CFI and District Court decisions are appealed to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Final Appeal hears appeals as the final court of the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
====Conviction==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their conviction. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
====Sentence==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their sentence. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
Section 81A of the CPO provides that the Secretary for Justice may, with the leave of the Court of Appeal, appeal against a sentence for being wrong in principle, manifestly excessive or manifestly inadequate.<br />
<br />
==The National Security Law (NSL)==<br />
===Background=== <br />
Since the PRC’s resumption of the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, the HKSAR has been constitutionally obliged to enact a National Security Law (NSL) according to the Article 23 of the Basic Law (“BL 23”). <br />
<br />
Although a draft law was prepared after widespread consultation by the HKSAR Government in 2003, it was withdrawn in the face of political opposition and no such law has been locally enacted despite the passage of some 23 years <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at §10 </ref> . <br />
<br />
Especially since Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, the discontent among the public has been a challenge to the authority of the PRC. The Central Authorities decided to take such legislation into their own hands. The HKSAR government supported it and claimed that the HKSAR was facing an increasingly serious situation in relation to national security <ref> CE's Statement 22/05/2020 at ¶2 (https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202005/22/P2020052200488.htm) </ref> . On 30 June 2020, the NPCSC duly decided to add the NSL to the list of laws in Annex III of the Basic Law to be applied locally by way of promulgation by the HKSAR. From the time the NSL was enacted up to June 2023, 260 people have been arrested on national security law grounds <ref> https://hongkongfp.com/2023/07/06/national-security-4-men-arrested-by-hong-kong-police-over-alleged-support-of-activists-abroad/. </ref>.<br />
<br />
Some sections of the NSL are discussed below.<br />
<br />
===The Freedom of Speech=== <br />
Article 4 of the NSL expressly stipulates that human rights shall be respected and protected in safeguarding national security in the HKSAR. The rights and freedoms, including the freedoms of speech, of the press, of publication, of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration, which the residents of the HKSAR enjoy shall be protected in accordance with the law.<br />
<br />
===The Rule of Law===<br />
Article 5 affirms the principle of the rule of law, presumption of innocence and double jeopardy. <br />
<br />
===Public Promotion and Education===<br />
Articles 9 and 10 requires the HKSAR government to promote national security education in schools and with the public.<br />
<br />
===No Right of Access to Information and No Duty to Disclose===<br />
Article 14 stipulates that information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
===Exclusion of Judicial Review===<br />
Article 14 states that Decisions made by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be amenable to judicial review.<br />
<br />
===The Department for Safeguarding National Security and its Recruitment of Personnel outside Hong Kong===<br />
Article 16 allows the Department to recruit qualified professionals and technical personnel from outside the HKSAR to provide assistance in the performance of duties for safeguarding national security. <br />
<br />
The duties and functions of the department are set out in Article 17:<br />
(1) collecting and analysing intelligence and information concerning national security;<br />
(2) planning, coordinating and enforcing measures and operations for safeguarding national security;<br />
(3) investigating offences endangering national security;<br />
(4) conducting counter-interference investigation and national security review;<br />
(5) carrying out tasks of safeguarding national security assigned by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; and<br />
(6) performing other duties and functions necessary for the enforcement of this Law.<br />
<br />
===Offences===<br />
Offences listed in Chapter III include “Secession”; “Subversion”; “Terrorist Activities”; and “Collusion with a Foreign Country or with External Elements to Endanger National Security” by seriously disrupting the formulation and implementation of laws or policies, requesting a foreign country or an institution to impose sanctions, or provoking by unlawful means hatred among Hong Kong residents towards the Central People’s Government or the Government of the Region, which is likely to cause serious consequences. In ''HKSAR v. Ma Chun Man,'' <ref> [2021] 1 HKC 316 at §21 </ref> the court explained that Article 21 “Secession” does not require violence as an element, and found that the chanting of slogans could be contrary to a ‘peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression’ or a ‘mere publicity’ <ref> §27 </ref>. <br />
<br />
===Related Offences===<br />
*a) Failure to provide information<br />
**i) The offence is derived from Article 43 of the NSL, which empowers the Hong Kong Chief Executive to enact additional rules for applying measures when the Hong Kong Police Force is handling cases concerning offences endangering national security. Chow Hang-Tung and two other former leaders of the Hong Kong Allicance were convicted for failure to provide information to the police under the national security law <ref> https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/chow-hang-tung-convicted-refusing-national-security-information-request-foreign-agent-case </ref>. <br />
<br />
*b)<br />
**i) Although the offence of sedition is not included in the NSL, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal ruled in December 2021 that Sedition under the Crimes Ordinance is an offence endangering National Security. A more stringent bail threshold may be applied to these crimes <ref> https://hongkongfp.com/2021/12/30/ex-editors-of-stand-news-officially-charged-under-hong-kongs-anti-sedition-law-denied-bail/ </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Political Rights===<br />
Article 35 disqualifies a convicted person from the right to vote and the right to stand for election. It also disqualifies such a person from holding any public office in the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
===Trial===<br />
Article 41 provides that the trial shall be conducted in an open court. However, when circumstances arise such as the trial involving State secrets or public order, all or part of the trial shall be closed to the media and the public but the judgment shall be delivered in an open court.<br />
<br />
===Bail===<br />
Article 42(2) rejects the presumption of bail: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Judges===<br />
Article 44 adds a restriction on judges that a person shall not be designated as a judge to adjudicate a case concerning offence endangering national security if he or she has made any statement or behaved in any manner endangering national security. A designated judge shall be removed from the designation list if he or she makes any statement or behaves in any manner endangering national security during the term of office.<br />
<br />
===Absence of Jury===<br />
Article 46 allows for the Secretary for Justice to remove the jury in the NSL cases on the grounds of, among others, the protection of State secrets, involvement of foreign factors in the case, and the protection of personal safety of jurors and their family members.<br />
<br />
===Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR===<br />
Chapter V lays down the responsibilities and operation of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR. The staff of the Office shall be jointly dispatched by relevant national security authorities under the Central People’s Government. Article 55 specifies that the Office itself shall exercise jurisdiction over a case concerning offence endangering national security under this Law, if the HKSAR is unable to effectively enforce this Law; or a major and imminent threat to national security has occurred.<br />
<br />
====Prosecution and Adjudication by the PRC====<br />
Article 56 confers the power of prosecution to the Supreme People’s Procuratorate and adjudication to the Supreme People’s Court in cases pursuant to Article of this Law.<br />
<br />
====Application of other National Laws of the PRC====<br />
Article 57 prescribe the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China and other related national laws to procedural matters, including those related to criminal investigation, examination and prosecution, trial, and execution of penalty, in respect of cases over which jurisdiction is exercised pursuant to Article 55 of this Law. <br />
<br />
===Legal Responsibilities of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR and its staff===<br />
Article 60 provides that the acts performed by them in accordance with this Law shall not be subject to the jurisdiction of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Hong_Kong&diff=381118Hong Kong2023-10-04T11:34:30Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|Hong Kong}}<br />
<br />
==Introduction== <br />
===Type of System=== <br />
The legal system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (the '''HKSAR''') differs from that of the majority of the People’s Republic of China (the ''PRC'') and is based on the common law. This is because Hong Kong was previously a British colony. On 1 July 1997 Hong Kong was handed over to the PRC.<br />
<br />
However, Article 57 of the National Security Law (''NSL'') allows the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and other related national laws to some cases. <ref> See the full text of the NSL at: https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20202448e/egn2020244872.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===The Basic Law and the Continuation of the Existing Legal System after 1 July 1997=== <br />
The constitutional framework of the HKSAR is provided by the Basic Law. It has been enacted by the National People’s Congress (the NPC) of the PRC under Article 31 of the Chinese Constitution.<br />
<br />
The Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the PRC on the Question of Hong Kong (the Joint Declaration) and the Basic Law guarantee the continuance of the pre-existing legal system after the PRC regained sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
The laws in force in Hong Kong before 1 July 1997 continued to apply in the HKSAR after that date except for those which contravened the Basic Law. Some legislation was adapted to ensure compliance with the Basic Law and to reflect Hong Kong’s status as a Special Administrative Region of the PRC.<br />
<br />
===The Courts=== <br />
The existing courts and tribunals were re-established on 1 July 1997 although some were renamed. The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was established to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal. All serving judges were reappointed by the HKSAR’s Chief Executive on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
Pursuant to the Basic Law, judges from other common law jurisdictions may be invited to sit on the Court of Final Appeal.<br />
<br />
The courts in Hong Kong are the following:<br />
*Magistrates’ Court<br />
*District Court<br />
*Court of First Instance (the CFI)<br />
*Court of Appeal<br />
*Court of Final Appeal<br />
<br />
The Supreme People’s Court of the PRC has the right of adjudication in cases under Article 56 of the NSL.<br />
<br />
===The Laws=== <br />
The laws in force in the HKSAR are:<br />
*(a) the Basic Law; <ref> See the full text of the Basic Law at: http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/text/en/basiclawtext/ </ref><br />
*(b) the 13 national laws listed in Annex III to the Basic Law as applied to the HKSAR by way of promulgation or legislation;<br />
*(c) the laws in force before 1 July 1997, including the common law, rules of equity, customary law and statutory law, other than those not adopted as laws of the HKSAR by the NPC Standing Committee because they contravene the Basic Law (these laws apply irrespective of whether the conduct occurred prior to 1 July 2007); and<br />
*(d) laws enacted by the HKSAR’s legislature.<br />
<br />
Only national laws relating to defence, foreign affairs or other matters outside the HKSAR’s autonomy may be added to Annex III to the Basic Law. <br />
<br />
All legislation in force in the HKSAR is bilingual. The Chinese and English language versions are equally authentic. All legislation is published in a hard-copy loose-leaf edition and is also available at www.legislation.gov.hk. Preparations are now under way for the establishment of an electronic legislation database with legal status pursuant to the Legislation Publication Ordinance of 2011.<br />
<br />
=== The legal aid situation in Hong Kong === <br />
====Publicly funded legal aid ====<br />
Publicly funded legal aid services are provided through the Legal Aid Department and the Duty Lawyer Service, in accordance with the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91)<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/07BCC0B0FE1EC8A1482575EE0037F553/$FILE/CAP_91_e_b5.pdf </ref> and the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) (the ''Legal Aid Rules'').<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D2405B17B91E99B1482575EE004F1B6D/$FILE/CAP_221D_e_b5.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Eligible applicants receive legal aid through the provision of the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, of a barrister. The Legal Aid Department provides legal representation to eligible applicants in criminal and some civil proceedings. <ref> See the website of the Legal Aid Department at www.lad.gov.hk </ref><br />
<br />
Legal aid is available for cases in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal and the Court of Final Appeal. It is also available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates' Courts.<br />
Any person who is a party to eligible court proceedings may apply for legal aid. Legal aid will be granted if the applicant is able to satisfy the statutory criteria as to financial eligibility and the merits for taking or defending the legal proceedings.<br />
<br />
Where a legal aid certificate is granted, the Director of Legal Aid (the '''Director''') may act for the aided person through lawyers employed in the Legal Aid Department. If the Director does not act for the aided person, he or the aided person may select a solicitor or counsel to act. The Director maintains separate panels of counsel and solicitors who are willing to investigate, report and give opinions on applications for legal aid and to act for aided persons. Aided persons may only select lawyers who are members of one of those panels.<ref> See section 13(3) of Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
==== Bar Free Legal Services Scheme ====<br />
Bar Free Legal Services Scheme only offers to the applicants whose applications to the Legal Aid Department have formally been rejected. Barristers who have volunteered to help the BFLSS are placed on a panel. The panel comprises barristers with a range of experience and specialisations. Each of them has offered their services free of charge for 3 days or 20 hours each year. No barrister is obliged to take on a particular case under the BFLSS. Barristers on the Panel offer their services free of charge, it may not always be possible for the BFLSS to assist. <ref> See Bar Free Legal Services Scheme https://www.hkba.org/content/bar-free-legal-services-scheme </ref><br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme covers some civil proceedings in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal, the Court of Final Appeal, certain coroner’s inquests and the Mental Health Review Tribunal. It does not cover civil cases such as probate cases and disputes between shareholders or business partners.<br />
<br />
In order to successfully apply for legal aid through the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme, an applicant must pass the merits test and the means test. The means test is based on financial resources and in order to be eligible an applicant’s financial resources must not exceed the financial eligibility limit. The Director may waive the upper financial eligibility limit in meritorious cases involving a breach of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (the '''BORO''')<ref> See the full text of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/AE5E078A7CF8E845482575EE007916D8/$FILE/CAP_383_e_b5.pdf </ref> or an inconsistency with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the '''ICCPR''').<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights at http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b3aa0.pdf </ref> <br />
<br />
Applicants must satisfy a merits test by demonstrating that there are reasonable grounds for taking or defending proceedings.<br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme provides legal assistance to persons whose financial resources exceed the upper limit allowed under the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme but whose resources are nevertheless below a certain higher eligibility limit. <br />
<br />
Legal aid is available under the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme for claims for example involving personal injury or death, or medical, dental and legal professional negligence if the claim is likely to exceed a certain threshold. It also covers any claim under the Employees’ Compensation Ordinance and representation for employees in any appeal against an award made by the Labour Tribunal. <br />
<br />
Applicants for the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme are required to pass a means test (which has a higher financial threshold) and the merits test by demonstrating reasonable grounds for taking proceedings. It is not available to people who are defending proceedings, other than defence of counterclaims.<ref> See Part 1 of Schedule 3 to Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, the yearly quota of civil cases overall possibly handled by individual lawyers will be decreased. The quota for barristers will decrease from 20 cases yearly to 15 cases yearly (25% decrease). The quota for solicitors will decrease from 35 cases yearly to 30 cases yearly (15% decrease). <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref><br />
<br />
====Criminal Legal Aid ==== <br />
Criminal legal aid provides the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, a barrister, to represent an accused person. It is available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates’ Court, cases tried in the District Court or CFI, and for all criminal appeals.<br />
<br />
Legal aid is not available in the Magistrates’ Court for cases other than committal proceedings. Assistance might nevertheless be provided in the Magistrates’ Court by the Duty Lawyer Scheme (discussed below).<br />
<br />
Applicants for criminal legal aid through the Legal Aid Department are required to pass: <br />
*(a) a means test (although if an applicant’s financial resources exceed the financial eligibility limit, the Director may waive the upper limit if satisfied that it is in the interests of justice to do so and subject to payment by the applicant of a contribution on higher rates calculated in accordance with the applicant’s financial resources); and <br />
*(b) a merits test (for trials in the District Court and the CFI, legal aid will be granted if it is desirable in the interests of justice to do so; for appeal cases, legal aid will be granted if there are valid grounds for appeal and it is in the interests of justice to do so).<br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, legal aid applicants will have to accept the lawyers assigned by the Department of Legal Aid unless there are “exceptional circumstances” (for example the nominated lawyers have already represented the representatives in lower courts), and aid recipients will no longer be able to choose their own lawyers, according to a consultation paper submitted to the legislature last week. <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref> <ref> ILegal aid reform: Critics fear right to choose lawyer will be undermined but Hong Kong gov’t advisor says plan will be ‘fairer’ https://hongkongfp.com/2021/10/25/legal-aid-reform-critics-fear-right-to-choose-lawyer-will-be-undermined-but-hong-kong-govt-advisor-says-plan-will-be-fairer/ </ref><br />
<br />
====Duty Lawyer Service==== <br />
The Duty Lawyer Service operates the Duty Lawyer Scheme and the Free Legal Advice Scheme.<br />
<ref> See Duty Lawyer Service website at http://www.dutylawyer.org.hk/en/free/free.asp </ref><br />
The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation by qualified lawyers in private practice to eligible defendants appearing in all Magistrates’ Courts, Juvenile Courts and Coroners Courts. Legal aid is not available in Magistrates' Courts except for committal proceedings. The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation to eligible defendants appearing in Magistrates Courts.<br />
<br />
The Free Legal Advice Scheme provides preliminary legal advice to members of the public. The Scheme will not offer any follow up service or representation to applicants. There is no means test and the service is free of charge. Lawyers participate in the scheme on a voluntary basis. <br />
<br />
===Number of lawyers (criminal/civil) === <br />
Law is practised in the HKSAR by both solicitors and barristers.<br />
<br />
In total, there are more than 12,000 practising solicitors and barristers. At the end of May 2022, 939 local solicitor firms and 83 foreign law firms were operating in Hong Kong, including more than half of the Global 100 law firms <ref> https://research.hktdc.com/en/article/MzEzODc5NTk5#:~:text=Hong%20Kong%20is%20the%20international,the%20Global%20100%20law%20firms. </ref><br />
<br />
Both professions are independently governed by professional regulatory bodies in Hong Kong. The Law Society of Hong Kong and the Bar Association of Hong Kong govern the professions of solicitors and barristers respectively.<br />
<br />
==Sources of a defendant's rights== <br />
===National Sources of Defendant's rights=== <br />
Chapter III of the Basic Law prescribes fundamental rights and freedoms in the HKSAR. The BORO also gives domestic effect to the provisions of the ICCPR as applied to the HKSAR. There is no definition of a resident for the purposes of the rights. The scope of each right varies; some are applicable to only "permanent residents" who have a right of abode, whilst other rights apply to everyone. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law sets out fundamental rights in Articles 24 to 42. These include equality before the law and freedom of speech.<ref> Article 27, Basic Law. </ref> <br />
<br />
===International Sources of a defendant's rights=== <br />
Under the Basic Law, multilateral treaties can apply to the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
Article 39 of the Basic Law provides that the provisions of the ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the ICESCR)<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at http://www.cmab.gov.hk/doc/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/icescr.doc </ref> as applied to the HKSAR shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the HKSAR. The ICESCR has not incorporated into local legislation so it is not enforceable. <ref> Ubamaka [2012] HKCFA 87 at §4 https://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UBAMAKA-EDWARD-WILSON-v.-SECRETARY-FOR-SECURITY-AND-ANOTHER.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Articles 4 and 5 of the BORO provide that the freedom of the person is inviolable. No resident may be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful arrest, detention or imprisonment. Arbitrary or unlawful search of the body of any resident or deprivation or restriction of the freedom of the person is prohibited. Article 28 of the Basic Law prohibits torture of any resident or arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of the life of any resident. <br />
<br />
== Police Procedures == <br />
=== Police Questioning === <br />
The Hong Kong Police Force has issued a guidance note to arrested persons in relation to arrest and detention.<ref> See http://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/pol/en/Pol-1128.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Section 54 of the Police Force Ordinance (the '''PFO''')<ref> See the full text of the Police Force Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/7E4D875F6BBDF825482575EE0050597B/$FILE/CAP_232_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that police officers have the power to stop an individual who is acting in a suspicious manner, or an individual reasonably suspected to have committed, be about to commit or be intending to commit any offence. Police may demand that the individual produce identification and may detain the individual for a reasonable period while a police officer enquires about whether or not they have committed an offence. For individuals acting in a suspicious manner, police officers may search the person for anything that may present a danger to the police office or detain them for a reasonably required period where considered necessary. For an individual reasonably suspected of having committed, being about to, or intending to commit any offence, police may search them for anything of value to the investigation and detain them for a period considered reasonable. <br />
<br />
A suspect may not be compelled to answer any questions as suspects enjoy the right to silence.<ref> Rice v Connolly [1996] 3 WLR 17.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Arrest, Search and Seizure Laws === <br />
==== Arrest ==== <br />
'''(a) Police Arrest'''<br />
Subsections 50(1), 50(1A) and 50(1B) of the PFO provide broad powers of arrest where a police officer has a reasonable belief that a person will be charged or a reasonable suspicion of a person’s guilt of any offence:<br />
*(i)with a sentence fixed by law, such as a mandatory sentence; <br />
*(ii)for which a person on first conviction could be sentenced to imprisonment; <br />
*(iii)where the service of a summons would be impracticable; or<br />
*(iv)if the person is liable for deportation.<br />
Under section 50(1) of the PFO, an officer must be able to point to circumstances or events which created or caused the reasonable suspicion that an offence had been or was going to be committed. A reasonable suspicion is more than a mere possibility of guilt but it is not necessary to show a prima facie case that the arrested person is guilty. The test is an objective test. <ref> R v Cheung Wai-wan and Wan Sze-shing v. A-G [1980] HKLR 550.</ref><br />
<br />
'''(b) Citizen's Powers of Arrest''' <br />
Sections 101 and 101A of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (the CPO) provide citizens with the power to arrest a person they reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence for which:<br />
*(i) the sentence is fixed by law; or <br />
*(ii) a person may be sentenced to imprisonment of more than 12 months. <br />
<br />
There is also a common law citizen's power to arrest for breach of the peace. <br />
<br />
'''(c) General principles of Arrest by police officer''' <br />
At the time of arrest the person should be informed of the reason for the arrest. This is required under both the common law<ref> Christie v Leachinsky [1947] AC 573, HL </ref> and Article 5(2) of the BORO. The circumstances in which it is not necessary to notify a person of the reason for their arrest are generally limited to situations when: <br />
*(i) giving the reason might make the arrest more difficult to effect;<ref> R v Ku Kat-sui [1989] 2 HKC 526, HC. </ref><br />
*(ii) the arrested person is resisting arrest to the effect of making it impracticable to give the reason;<ref> HKSAR v Ip Kenneth [2006] 2 HKLRD 433. </ref> or <br />
*(iii) the arrested person is already aware of the reason for the arrest.<ref>Ibid</ref><br />
<br />
Physical force, appropriate conduct or words must be used to make it clear that an arrest is occurring. It must be made clear to the arrested person that he is not free to go.<ref> Shaabin Bin Hussein v Chong Fook-kam [1970] AC 942, PC. </ref> Any person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of crime or in effecting or assisting in the lawful arrest of offenders or suspected offenders or of persons unlawfully at large.<ref> See section 101A(1) of Cap 221.</ref><br />
<br />
Section 50(2) of the PFO provides that an officer may use all means necessary to effect the arrest if the suspect forcibly resists or attempts to evade it.<br />
<br />
Section 40(5) of the PFO provides that police have the right to search the arrested person or the premises in which the person was arrested if a lawful arrest is made. They also have the right to take items found in any such search if the arresting officer reasonably expects those items to be of value in the investigation.<br />
<br />
==== Search and seizure ==== <br />
Premises in the HKSAR may be searched with or without a warrant. Warrants may be issued under section 50(7) of the PFO by a magistrate. These allow police to enter, search for and seize property. There must be reasonable grounds to suspect that an item of value to an investigation may be located within premises in order for a warrant to be issued. <br />
<br />
There are both common law and statutory authorities giving police powers to search premises without a warrant. The common law power allows police to search the area where an individual was arrested and to seize any appropriate item. This power should only be exercised when it is reasonably necessary and where it is reasonably impractical to obtain a search warrant. Sections 50(3), (4), (5) and (6) of the PFO provide police with further powers of search in order to make an arrest or search for items which are of value to the investigation.<br />
<br />
Section 10C of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) (the ICAC Ordinance)<ref> See the full text of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurAllEngDoc/A3E9ED78744D8631482575EE004CB37D/$FILE/CAP_204_e_b5.pdf </ref> allows officers of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (the ICAC) to search the premises where an individual is arrested whom they reasonably suspect is guilty of an offence under the ICAC Ordinance.<br />
<br />
===Line-ups (identification parades) and other identification procedures=== <br />
There are no statutory rules regarding the conduct of identification parades in the HKSAR. There are nevertheless official police procedures which are set out in the Police Force Procedures Manual. <br />
<br />
An identification parade is generally composed of a suspect and eight actors of similar appearance. It is organised and conducted by a senior police officer not involved in the investigation of the case. There must be no suggestion to witnesses regarding which person is the suspect. The suspect’s legal advisor can be present.<br />
<br />
Confrontation identification, group identification or dock identification might be applicable if the accused refuses or is otherwise unable to participate in an identification parade. Confrontation identification involves the identification of a suspect immediately after an offence has been committed. Group identification involves the identification of a suspect from a group between apprehension and trial. Dock identification involves the identification of a suspect at trial.<br />
<br />
===Interrogation=== <br />
The process of interrogation in the HKSAR is governed by the 1992 Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Making of Statements (the Rules). The Rules provide that statements must be voluntary and that persons in authority must not use threats, promises or deception. A failure to comply with the Rules may result in the evidence being inadmissible. Judges are entitled to admit evidence at their discretion which the Rules would classify as inadmissible when necessary to ensure a fair trial for the accused but rarely need to exercise such discretion in practice.<br />
<br />
Rule 1 of the Rules provides that during the initial investigation stage police officers are entitled to question any person who they think may have useful information even if they are not a suspect. <br />
<br />
Rule 2 of the Rules provides that police officers must caution the individual before putting more questions to them which relate to the offence once there is evidence that would afford reasonable grounds for suspecting that the individual has committed an offence. If the individual wishes to continue talking after receiving the caution then a contemporaneous record of proceedings must be kept. As far as practicable this record must record the time and place of the questioning and list the persons present.<br />
<br />
Rule 3(a) of the Rules provides a format for cautioning the suspect if they are charged or informed that they may be prosecuted for an offence. The caution is in the following form: <br />
:Do you wish to say anything? You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say will be taken down in writing and may be given in evidence.<br />
<br />
A contemporaneous record must be kept of this questioning. <br />
<br />
Rule 6(a) of the Rules provides that wherever possible all interviews should be conducted in the mother tongue of the individual being questioned.<br />
<br />
Direction 8(1) of the Rules provides that individuals in custody or present with the police and under investigation should be allowed to speak to their friends or family by telephone and consult and communicate privately with their lawyer in writing or on the telephone provided that it will not cause an unreasonable delay or hindrance to the investigation or the administration of justice. <br />
<br />
==Police Powers== <br />
=== Stopping and Detaining a suspect=== <br />
Article 5 of the BORO and Article 28 of the Basic Law require restraint of a person to be legally authorised. <br />
<br />
Section 54 of the PFO provides that an officer may stop and detain for a reasonable period and search as appropriate:<br />
*(a) any person acting in a suspicious manner; or <br />
*(b) anyone whom the police reasonably suspect of having committed or being about to commit or intending to commit an offence.<br />
<br />
There is no power of arrest under section 54 of the PFO. The general powers of arrest are set out in section 50(1) of the PFO. An arrest must conform to these requirements.<br />
<br />
===Questioning a suspect pre-arrest=== <br />
The right to silence exists both before and after arrest and it is inappropriate to use an individual’s silence against them in any way.<ref> Lee Fuk Hing v HKSAR (2004) 7 HKCFAR 600.</ref> However, sections 3 and 4 of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455)<ref> See the full text of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/4D1FF665EFF4E8B0482575EF0009EBA1/$FILE/CAP_455_e_b5.pdf </ref> override this right: a CFI judge may make an order to compel individuals to answer questions relating to the investigation of organised crime. In addition, section 14 of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201)<ref> See the full text of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurEngOrd/660A25EA15B8C9D6482575EE004C5BF1/$FILE/CAP_201_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that ICAC may request a judge in a bribe investigation to order an individual to provide a statement explaining the source of money or property. <br />
<br />
== Pre Trial Procedures == <br />
A number of principles of defence, including those provided by the Basic Law, have been given effect through the enactment of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Cap 221) (the CPO) and the Legal Aid Rules. Other principles have been given effect by way of the common law. These principles are not distinct. For example, Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that "everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law". This principle is given practical effect in the CPO. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law guarantees principles of defence including:<br />
*(a) equality before the courts (Article 10);<br />
*(b) the right to a fair and public trial by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law (Article 10);<br />
*(c) the right to trial by jury in the most serious cases;<br />
*(d) the presumption of innocence (Article 11);<br />
*(e) the burden of proof lies with the prosecution;<br />
*(f) the standard of proof is ‘beyond reasonable doubt’;<br />
*(g) the right to prompt and detailed information as to the nature and cause of the charge;<br />
*(h) adequate time for preparation of the defence case;<br />
*(i) the right not to be tried or punished for an offence for which a suspect has already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law (Article 11);<br />
*(j) the right to legal representation;<br />
*(k) the right to be tried without undue delay;<br />
*(l) the right to legal assistance;<br />
*(m) the right to call witnesses and secure their presence in court;<br />
*(n) the right to cross-examine prosecution witnesses;<br />
*(o) the right to have the free service of an interpreter;<br />
*(p) the right to remain silent in court;<br />
*(q) the right to appeal either or both of conviction and sentence; and<br />
*(r) the limited right to bail pending trial or appeal depending on the gravity of the offence and surrounding circumstances.<br />
the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
*(s) the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
<br />
==Rights of the accused at all times== <br />
===Double jeopardy===<br />
Article 11(6) of the BORO provides that no one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which they have already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Presumption of innocence=== <br />
Article 11(1) of the BORO provides for the presumption of innocence. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. <br />
<br />
=== Right against self-incrimination=== <br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that the defendant has the right no to be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt. <br />
<br />
=== Witnesses === <br />
The prosecution and the defendant may use witness evidence to support their case. Article 11(2)(e) of the BORO provides the defendant with the right to examine or have examined witnesses brought against them and to have witnesses present on their behalf. <br />
<br />
===Rights during trial=== <br />
Article 11(2) (f) of the BORO provides that accused persons have the right to an interpreter during the trial if they cannot speak or understand the language used in court. <br />
<br />
===Right to an appeal=== <br />
Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to have their conviction and sentence reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law (meaning an appellate court or tribunal). <br />
<br />
===Ex-post facto punishment (retrospective punishment)=== <br />
Article 12 of the BORO provides that there is no retrospective punishment in the HKSAR for acts or omissions which did not constitute a criminal offence at the time committed. Heavier penalties cannot be imposed other than those applicable at the time the offence was committed. <br />
<br />
==Fair trial Rights == <br />
Article 87 of the Basic Law provides that all defendants are guaranteed the right to a fair trial without delay and that they shall be presumed innocent until convicted. <br />
<br />
===Right to counsel=== <br />
Article 11(2)(d) of the Basic Law provides that all persons in the HKSAR have the right to seek legal assistance. All individuals have the right to defend themselves through legal assistance of their own choosing. Individuals have the right to legal assistance which should be without payment if they do not have sufficient means to pay. Further, Article 11(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused persons must be given adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence and communicate with their chosen counsel. <br />
<br />
===Right to habeas corpus===<br />
Article 22A of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4)<ref> See the full text of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165d2fee3fa94825755e0033e532/E3C89D7AC07002EE482575EE002A70D9/$FILE/CAP_4_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that an application for a habeas corpus writ may be made to the CFI alleging that an applicant is being unlawfully detained and requesting the issuing of a writ of habeas corpus. The detained individual, or any other person on their behalf can make an application. As soon as practicable after receiving the application the CFI must inquire into the allegation. All proceedings must be conducted in open court. If satisfied that the application has substance the CFI can order the issue of a writ of habeas corpus directing that the person with custody over the applicant bring the applicant before the Court at a specified date to certify the grounds for detention or bring the person with custody over the applicant to Court to justify the lawfulness of the detention. If satisfied that the application has no substance the CFI may dismiss it.<br />
<br />
===Right to notice of charges===<br />
Article 11(2)(a) of the BORO provides that all individuals should be informed of the nature and cause of the charges against them and in detail in a language they can understand. <br />
<br />
===Right to non-self incrimination===<br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that individuals cannot be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt.<br />
<br />
===Right to a fair and speedy trial===<br />
Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge must promptly be brought before a judge or legal officer. Individuals are entitled to a trial within a reasonable time or to release from detention. Further, Article 5(4) of the BORO provides that individuals deprived of their liberty are entitled to initiate proceedings before a court to decide the lawfulness of their detention. Article 5(5) of the BORO provides that individuals who are unlawfully arrested or detained have enforceable rights to compensation. Article 11(2)(c) of the BORO provides further rights to be tried without undue delay.<br />
<br />
===Rights pre-trial===<br />
Article 6(2)(a) of the BORO provides that accused persons shall be segregated from convicted persons and subject to separate treatment, save in exceptional circumstances. Further, 6(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused juveniles must be separated from adults and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication. Articles 6(3) and 11(3) of the BORO provide that the procedure for juveniles should take into account their age and the desirability of promoting their rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
===Right to an independent and impartial court ===<br />
Article 10 of the BORO provides that individuals have the right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law and to a fair and public hearing. All persons are equal before the courts and tribunals. In some instances the public and press may be excluded from all or part of the trial. <br />
<br />
===Right to disclosure===<br />
Defendants have the right to receive relevant information from the prosecution regarding their cases even if the information may be injurious to the prosecution’s claim. The prosecution is required to inform the defendant of any discreditable behaviour of a prosecution witness that may affect their assessment as a witness. Information may be withheld from the defendant if considered prejudicial to the public interest. This duty of disclosure is both a statutory and common law duty. The statutory source of this duty is provided in Article 39 and 87 of the Basic Law and Article 11(2) of the BORO. The common law duty is derived from the defendant’s right to a fair trial which implies that a defendant should possess adequate knowledge of the prosecution’s case. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, under Article 14 of the National Security Law (NSL), information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
==Rights in prison==<br />
The General Rules for the Government of Prisons (the Prison Rules)<ref> See the full text of the General Rules for the Government of Prisons at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/C91C6D774F99548F482575EE0050CA96/$FILE/CAP_234A_e_b5.pdf </ref> outlines the general conditions of prisons in the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Conditions of confinement===<br />
Rule 54 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisoners have the right to petition the Chief Executive during the first year of their sentence and once every year thereafter unless the Superintendent in charge of the relevant prison considers that there is sufficient cause to justify additional petitions. The Prison Rules do not limit the scope of the subject matter in respect of which a prisoner may petition.<br />
<br />
===Medical care=== <br />
Rule 5 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisons are required to have a hospital or another designated place for the reception of sick prisoners. All prisoners undergo a physical examination on admission that is conducted as soon as possible after prisoners are admitted. Rule 14 of the Prison Rules provides that prisoners must be examined separately by a medical officer who will create a record on the state of their health. The physical examination should be conducted on the date of admission into prison or within 24 hours of admission. Prisoners may obtain medical treatment in prison or in one of the two custodial wards at the government hospital. Prisoners have access to dental care and specialist treatment if required. <br />
<br />
===Women’s rights=== <br />
Rules 6, 7 and 10 of the Prison Rules provide that female prisoners must be kept in premises entirely separate from male prisoners. Female premises must be controlled by female officers. Male officers may only enter female premises on duty and in the company of a female officer. Female prisoners should only be searched by female officers. <br />
Rule 21 of the Prison Rules contains further rights for female prisoners with children. The child of a female prisoner may be received into prison with its mother during the normal lactation period. The child can remain with the mother until a medical officer certifies that the child is in a condition fit to be removed. The medical officer will report to the Commissioner of prisons as to whether it is necessary or desirable for the child to remain in the prison once the child reaches nine months or is over that age. No child over the age of three years may remain in prison. <br />
<br />
==Court procedures== <br />
===Preliminary investigation and trial=== <br />
Police generally decide whether to charge a suspect. Section 52(1) of the PFO provides that a defendant must be brought before a magistrate within 48 hours and without unreasonable delay if charged. During this period lawyers should deal with the police officers in charge of the case. A magistrate has the responsibility to decide whether to issue bail or remand the defendant into custody. The matter is then sent to the prosecution’s office. The prosecution will decide to proceed with the same charge, amend the charge or withdraw the charge completely. When deciding whether to charge or not the prosecution must take into account the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice.<ref> See the full text of the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/ajls/papers/aj0203cb2-sppp-e-scan.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===Bail=== <br />
Bail means release of a person from detention based on an undertaking, with or without conditions, to surrender to custody as ordered by the court or directed by the police. There is a presumption of entitlement to bail. Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that<br />
<br />
:it shall not be the general rule that persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be subject to guarantees to appear for trial.<br />
<br />
However, Article 42(2) of the NSL rejects the presumption of for cases governed by the NSL: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
So far, the prosecution still cannot ask for review (by CA or CFA) of the CFI judge’s decision to release a Defendant on bail even under the National Security Law <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at § 6 https://legalref.judiciary.hk/lrs/common/search/search_result_detail_frame.jsp?DIS=133491&QS=%2B&TP=JU&ILAN=en </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
Section 52 of the PFO allows police to grant bail if the offence is not serious and there is no reason to detain the defendant. The individual will be charged and appear before a magistrate if police bail is not given. The defendant will be remanded into police custody or gaol custody. Any time on remand will count towards a subsequent custodial sentence.<br />
<br />
Two forms of bail are available to the defendant: <br />
*(a) Police bail<br />
The individual will generally be granted bail by the police in charge of the station after they are charged. If the charge is very serious bail may not be granted by the officer. Provided the charge is not yet laid, an individual may be released on cash bail or recognisance that they will return to the police station if required. <br />
*(b) Magistrates’ bail<br />
Police bail will expire once an individual is brought in front of a magistrate and magistrates’ bail will then apply. Magistrates’ bail is given generally and may include certain conditions. Bail may not be given if it is likely that the individual will interfere with witnesses, the offence is serious or there is a strong likelihood that the individual will abscond. Part 1A of the CPO contains the rules that relate to magistrates’ bail. If an individual is charged with murder or treason they will need to seek bail from a CFI judge.<br />
<br />
The presumption in favour of bail in Part 9D(1) of the CPO is “[subject] to this section and section 9G”. Part 9D(2) of the CPO states that the grant of bail may be subject to conditions. Part 9G(1) of CPO lists the possible basis for refusing bail. If such grounds are not positively made out, bail is granted. The rule embodies the presumption in favour of bail. <br />
<br />
For cases governed by the NSL, that presumption is excluded in the first instance by Section 42(2) of NSL. The starting-point is that no bail shall be granted unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the accused “will not continue to commit acts endangering national security”. Plainly, it introduces a considerably more stringent threshold requirement. Another point of distinction is that Section 42(2) of NSL does not refer to the risk of committing an offence but to a risk that the accused will “continue” to “commit acts endangering national security” if granted bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §53 </ref> .The judge, in answering the NSL 42(2) question, may decide that in all the circumstances including the factors listed in Section 9D(2) and 9G(2) CPO, and having duly considered possible bail conditions, he or she does not have sufficient grounds for believing that the defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security and thus refuse bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §57 & 58 </ref>. To conclude, Section 42(2) NSL imports a stringent threshold requirement for bail applications <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §70 </ref> .<br />
<br />
It should be noted that in the NSL cases, the rules governing bail in general are subject to any specific changes effected by NSL 42(2) which are<br />
made to prevail by Section 62 of NSL.<br />
<br />
===Assessing the admissibility of evidence=== <br />
A voir dire will be held in the CFI if issues arise regarding the admissibility of evidence. This is a mini trial to determine the admissibility of evidence and is generally held in the absence of a jury. The preferred method for the Magistrates’ and District Court to assess the admissibility of evidence is the ‘alternative procedure’. In this method questions are determined within the trial rather than in a separate mini trial. This is possible as these courts do not involve a jury. This is mandatory where a so-called double-barrelled attack is made by the defence or the accused not only denies making the confession, but also asserts that the police mistreated him <ref> Thongjai & Anor v The Queen CACC608/1994 at line 13 of p.7 </ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Trial === <br />
Trials in the Magistrates’ Court take place in front of a magistrate. The magistrate is not under any obligation to provide reasons for their verdict but will often do so in practice. Magistrates are required to provide reasons when deciding an appeal case. Trials in District Court are before a single Judge. District Court judges must supply reasons within 21 days of delivering a judgment.<br />
<br />
Trials in the CFI will be conducted before a jury. NSL cases are the exception. Section 4 of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3)<ref> See the full text of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/9B7D35E42635E9EA482575EE002A5989/$FILE/CAP_3_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that jurors must be between the ages of 21 and 65 years, be a resident in the HKSAR, be of sound mind, not be affected by blindness, deafness or other disabilities affecting service, be of good character and have sufficient knowledge of the English language.<br />
<br />
Once the jury is empanelled the case begins with the prosecution explaining the offence and facts to the jury and identifying the witnesses. The prosecution will then call on the prosecution witnesses to give evidence and the witnesses may be cross-examined by the defence counsel. After the prosecution has pleaded their case the defence may make a “no case” submission. The judge or magistrate must direct the jury to acquit the defendant if the prosecution case, even taken at its highest, would not allow a jury to convict the defendant. If there is no ‘no-case’ submission, the defence counsel then presents their case. Following this, the both parties may make a closing submission. The judge will sum up the facts of the case and direct the jury who will deliberate their verdict. The jury will deliver their verdict and the judge will decide on sentencing appropriately.<br />
<br />
===Assessing=== <br />
All matters commence in the Magistrates’ Court. The prosecution sends the case to be heard in the appropriate court depending on the maximum sentence available for the crime - the Magistrates' Court needs to determine the correct court to hear the case. The Magistrates’ Court will hear the case if the maximum sentence is two years or less. If the maximum sentence is seven years or less the case will be heard in the District Court. Other cases will be heard in the CFI where there is no limit to the maximum penalty available.<br />
<br />
===Sentencing===<br />
Sentencing will take place after the offender has been convicted following the jury trial. There are statutory penalties for the majority of offences which consist of a term of imprisonment or a fine. Certain offences such as murder, manslaughter and common law conspiracy are common law offences. Murder has a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment. Sections 2 and 7 of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212)<ref> See the full text of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/43CA4DC0171D9224482575EE004D5CE1/$FILE/CAP_212_e_b5.pdf </ref> provide that manslaughter has a discretionary life imprisonment penalty. Sentencing will take place by a judge in the court that is considered most appropriate.<br />
<br />
*(a) Crimes that have a maximum of two years imprisonment and a fine of $100,000 will generally be heard in the Magistrates’ Court.<br />
*(b) Crimes that have a maximum of seven years imprisonment and no fine limit will be heard in the District Court.<br />
*(c) Crimes that have a maximum sentencing above those listed will be heard in the CFI. <br />
<br />
Maximum sentences are reserved for the most severe offences.<ref> R v Pang Chun-Wai [1993] 1 HKC 233</ref> Sentences may be discounted. A discounted sentence is generally awarded to an early guilty plea. The fact that a defendant has challenged the evidence against them and lost does not preclude them from receiving a discount.<br />
<br />
===Penalties=== <br />
Penalties other than imprisonment are also available: <br />
====Bind-over orders==== <br />
A bind-over order is a promise by the defendant to keep the peace or be of good behaviour and not commit an offence for a specified period of time. If the offence is committed during the specified period then the accused or their surety must pay a sum of money or they may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment. <br />
<br />
====Community service orders==== <br />
A community service order may be made pursuant to the Community Service Orders Ordinance (Cap 378) if the accused is 14 years of age or older.<ref> HKSAR v Chow Chak Man and Another [1999] 2 HKC 659, CA.</ref> The community service order may be for a maximum of 240 hours of unpaid work over a period of 12 months. Community service orders may only be given with the consent of the accused.<br />
<br />
====Compensation orders====<br />
Section 98 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227)<ref> See the full text of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/FCE2EE462FE99FF0482575EE004FC664/$FILE/CAP_227_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that a magistrate may order an offender to pay compensation to the victim if the magistrate thinks that the paying of compensation is reasonable. Compensation orders are available for personal injury, and loss or damage to property. There is a compensation limit of $100,000. A compensation order is an addition to the main sentence and does not replace it.<br />
<br />
====Confiscation orders====<br />
Confiscation orders apply to drug trafficking and organised crime offences. The CFI and the District Court may order that the proceeds of criminal activity be confiscated.<br />
<br />
====Young defendants====<br />
Defendants who are male and aged between fourteen and twenty-five years may be sentenced to a detention centre order for a period of between three to twelve months in a centre which specialises in receiving young offenders. <br />
<br />
The Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap 225)<ref> See the full text of the Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap25) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D9FF47BCCCF15547482575EE004F6ABE/$FILE/CAP_225_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that young males aged between ten and fifteen years may be sentenced to attend reformatory school for a period of between one to three years. <br />
<br />
The Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 567)<ref> See the full text of the Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr0001/english/ord/ord011-01-e.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty-one years may be ordered to attend a rehabilitation centre in which they are to reside after studying, working or engaging in other approved activities<br />
<br />
The Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280)<ref> See the full text of the Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/6400D7B668DEA1DF482575EE00565EDB/$FILE/CAP_280_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty years may be detained in a training centre to undergo a period of training to reform the offender’s character.<br />
<br />
====Rehabilitation====<br />
Convicted persons may be sentenced to spend a period of between two to twelve months in a drug addiction treatment centre. Defendants must be assessed in order to determine their suitability for the cure and rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
====Disqualification of political rights====<br />
This is available in the NSL cases. <br />
<br />
===Appeals===<br />
There is no common law right to an appeal in the HKSAR to the effect that appeals must be made pursuant to an applicable Ordinance.<br />
<br />
A magistrate’s decision is appealed to the CFI. CFI and District Court decisions are appealed to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Final Appeal hears appeals as the final court of the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
====Conviction==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their conviction. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
====Sentence==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their sentence. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
Section 81A of the CPO provides that the Secretary for Justice may, with the leave of the Court of Appeal, appeal against a sentence for being wrong in principle, manifestly excessive or manifestly inadequate.<br />
<br />
==The National Security Law (NSL)==<br />
===Background=== <br />
Since the PRC’s resumption of the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, the HKSAR has been constitutionally obliged to enact a National Security Law (NSL) according to the Article 23 of the Basic Law (“BL 23”). <br />
<br />
Although a draft law was prepared after widespread consultation by the HKSAR Government in 2003, it was withdrawn in the face of political opposition and no such law has been locally enacted despite the passage of some 23 years <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at §10 </ref> . <br />
<br />
Especially since Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, the discontent among the public has been a challenge to the authority of the PRC. The Central Authorities decided to take such legislation into their own hands. The HKSAR government supported it and claimed that the HKSAR was facing an increasingly serious situation in relation to national security <ref> CE's Statement 22/05/2020 at ¶2 (https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202005/22/P2020052200488.htm) </ref> . On 30 June 2020, the NPCSC duly decided to add the NSL to the list of laws in Annex III of the Basic Law to be applied locally by way of promulgation by the HKSAR. From the time the NSL was enacted up to June 2023, 260 people have been arrested on national security law grounds <ref> https://hongkongfp.com/2023/07/06/national-security-4-men-arrested-by-hong-kong-police-over-alleged-support-of-activists-abroad/. </ref>.<br />
<br />
Some sections of the NSL are discussed below.<br />
<br />
===The Freedom of Speech=== <br />
Article 4 of the NSL expressly stipulates that human rights shall be respected and protected in safeguarding national security in the HKSAR. The rights and freedoms, including the freedoms of speech, of the press, of publication, of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration, which the residents of the HKSAR enjoy shall be protected in accordance with the law.<br />
<br />
===The Rule of Law===<br />
Article 5 affirms the principle of the rule of law, presumption of innocence and double jeopardy. <br />
<br />
===Public Promotion and Education===<br />
Articles 9 and 10 requires the HKSAR government to promote national security education in schools and with the public.<br />
<br />
===No Right of Access to Information and No Duty to Disclose===<br />
Article 14 stipulates that information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
===Exclusion of Judicial Review===<br />
Article 14 states that Decisions made by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be amenable to judicial review.<br />
<br />
===The Department for Safeguarding National Security and its Recruitment of Personnel outside Hong Kong===<br />
Article 16 allows the Department to recruit qualified professionals and technical personnel from outside the HKSAR to provide assistance in the performance of duties for safeguarding national security. <br />
<br />
The duties and functions of the department are set out in Article 17:<br />
(1) collecting and analysing intelligence and information concerning national security;<br />
(2) planning, coordinating and enforcing measures and operations for safeguarding national security;<br />
(3) investigating offences endangering national security;<br />
(4) conducting counter-interference investigation and national security review;<br />
(5) carrying out tasks of safeguarding national security assigned by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; and<br />
(6) performing other duties and functions necessary for the enforcement of this Law.<br />
<br />
===Offences===<br />
Offences listed in Chapter III include “Secession”; “Subversion”; “Terrorist Activities”; and “Collusion with a Foreign Country or with External Elements to Endanger National Security” by seriously disrupting the formulation and implementation of laws or policies, requesting a foreign country or an institution to impose sanctions, or provoking by unlawful means hatred among Hong Kong residents towards the Central People’s Government or the Government of the Region, which is likely to cause serious consequences. In ''HKSAR v. Ma Chun Man,'' <ref> [2021] 1 HKC 316 at §21 </ref> the court explained that Article 21 “Secession” does not require violence as an element, and found that the chanting of slogans could be contrary to a ‘peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression’ or a ‘mere publicity’ <ref> §27 </ref>. <br />
<br />
===Related Offences===<br />
*a) Failure to provide information<br />
**i) The offence is derived from Article 43 of the NSL, which empowers the Hong Kong Chief Executive to enact additional rules for applying measures when the Hong Kong Police Force is handling cases concerning offences endangering national security. Chow Hang-Tung and two other former leaders of the Hong Kong Allicance were convicted for failure to provide information to the police under the national secuirty law.<br />
<br />
*b)<br />
**i) Although the offence of sedition is not included in the NSL, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal ruled in December 2021 that Sedition under the Crimes Ordinance is an offence endangering National Security. A more stringent bail threshold may be applied to these crimes.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Political Rights===<br />
Article 35 disqualifies a convicted person from the right to vote and the right to stand for election. It also disqualifies such a person from holding any public office in the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
===Trial===<br />
Article 41 provides that the trial shall be conducted in an open court. However, when circumstances arise such as the trial involving State secrets or public order, all or part of the trial shall be closed to the media and the public but the judgment shall be delivered in an open court.<br />
<br />
===Bail===<br />
Article 42(2) rejects the presumption of bail: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Judges===<br />
Article 44 adds a restriction on judges that a person shall not be designated as a judge to adjudicate a case concerning offence endangering national security if he or she has made any statement or behaved in any manner endangering national security. A designated judge shall be removed from the designation list if he or she makes any statement or behaves in any manner endangering national security during the term of office.<br />
<br />
===Absence of Jury===<br />
Article 46 allows for the Secretary for Justice to remove the jury in the NSL cases on the grounds of, among others, the protection of State secrets, involvement of foreign factors in the case, and the protection of personal safety of jurors and their family members.<br />
<br />
===Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR===<br />
Chapter V lays down the responsibilities and operation of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR. The staff of the Office shall be jointly dispatched by relevant national security authorities under the Central People’s Government. Article 55 specifies that the Office itself shall exercise jurisdiction over a case concerning offence endangering national security under this Law, if the HKSAR is unable to effectively enforce this Law; or a major and imminent threat to national security has occurred.<br />
<br />
====Prosecution and Adjudication by the PRC====<br />
Article 56 confers the power of prosecution to the Supreme People’s Procuratorate and adjudication to the Supreme People’s Court in cases pursuant to Article of this Law.<br />
<br />
====Application of other National Laws of the PRC====<br />
Article 57 prescribe the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China and other related national laws to procedural matters, including those related to criminal investigation, examination and prosecution, trial, and execution of penalty, in respect of cases over which jurisdiction is exercised pursuant to Article 55 of this Law. <br />
<br />
===Legal Responsibilities of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR and its staff===<br />
Article 60 provides that the acts performed by them in accordance with this Law shall not be subject to the jurisdiction of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Hong_Kong&diff=381117Hong Kong2023-10-04T11:33:52Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|Hong Kong}}<br />
<br />
==Introduction== <br />
===Type of System=== <br />
The legal system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (the '''HKSAR''') differs from that of the majority of the People’s Republic of China (the ''PRC'') and is based on the common law. This is because Hong Kong was previously a British colony. On 1 July 1997 Hong Kong was handed over to the PRC.<br />
<br />
However, Article 57 of the National Security Law (''NSL'') allows the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and other related national laws to some cases. <ref> See the full text of the NSL at: https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20202448e/egn2020244872.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===The Basic Law and the Continuation of the Existing Legal System after 1 July 1997=== <br />
The constitutional framework of the HKSAR is provided by the Basic Law. It has been enacted by the National People’s Congress (the NPC) of the PRC under Article 31 of the Chinese Constitution.<br />
<br />
The Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the PRC on the Question of Hong Kong (the Joint Declaration) and the Basic Law guarantee the continuance of the pre-existing legal system after the PRC regained sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
The laws in force in Hong Kong before 1 July 1997 continued to apply in the HKSAR after that date except for those which contravened the Basic Law. Some legislation was adapted to ensure compliance with the Basic Law and to reflect Hong Kong’s status as a Special Administrative Region of the PRC.<br />
<br />
===The Courts=== <br />
The existing courts and tribunals were re-established on 1 July 1997 although some were renamed. The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was established to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal. All serving judges were reappointed by the HKSAR’s Chief Executive on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
Pursuant to the Basic Law, judges from other common law jurisdictions may be invited to sit on the Court of Final Appeal.<br />
<br />
The courts in Hong Kong are the following:<br />
*Magistrates’ Court<br />
*District Court<br />
*Court of First Instance (the CFI)<br />
*Court of Appeal<br />
*Court of Final Appeal<br />
<br />
The Supreme People’s Court of the PRC has the right of adjudication in cases under Article 56 of the NSL.<br />
<br />
===The Laws=== <br />
The laws in force in the HKSAR are:<br />
*(a) the Basic Law; <ref> See the full text of the Basic Law at: http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/text/en/basiclawtext/ </ref><br />
*(b) the 13 national laws listed in Annex III to the Basic Law as applied to the HKSAR by way of promulgation or legislation;<br />
*(c) the laws in force before 1 July 1997, including the common law, rules of equity, customary law and statutory law, other than those not adopted as laws of the HKSAR by the NPC Standing Committee because they contravene the Basic Law (these laws apply irrespective of whether the conduct occurred prior to 1 July 2007); and<br />
*(d) laws enacted by the HKSAR’s legislature.<br />
<br />
Only national laws relating to defence, foreign affairs or other matters outside the HKSAR’s autonomy may be added to Annex III to the Basic Law. <br />
<br />
All legislation in force in the HKSAR is bilingual. The Chinese and English language versions are equally authentic. All legislation is published in a hard-copy loose-leaf edition and is also available at www.legislation.gov.hk. Preparations are now under way for the establishment of an electronic legislation database with legal status pursuant to the Legislation Publication Ordinance of 2011.<br />
<br />
=== The legal aid situation in Hong Kong === <br />
====Publicly funded legal aid ====<br />
Publicly funded legal aid services are provided through the Legal Aid Department and the Duty Lawyer Service, in accordance with the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91)<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/07BCC0B0FE1EC8A1482575EE0037F553/$FILE/CAP_91_e_b5.pdf </ref> and the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) (the ''Legal Aid Rules'').<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D2405B17B91E99B1482575EE004F1B6D/$FILE/CAP_221D_e_b5.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Eligible applicants receive legal aid through the provision of the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, of a barrister. The Legal Aid Department provides legal representation to eligible applicants in criminal and some civil proceedings. <ref> See the website of the Legal Aid Department at www.lad.gov.hk </ref><br />
<br />
Legal aid is available for cases in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal and the Court of Final Appeal. It is also available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates' Courts.<br />
Any person who is a party to eligible court proceedings may apply for legal aid. Legal aid will be granted if the applicant is able to satisfy the statutory criteria as to financial eligibility and the merits for taking or defending the legal proceedings.<br />
<br />
Where a legal aid certificate is granted, the Director of Legal Aid (the '''Director''') may act for the aided person through lawyers employed in the Legal Aid Department. If the Director does not act for the aided person, he or the aided person may select a solicitor or counsel to act. The Director maintains separate panels of counsel and solicitors who are willing to investigate, report and give opinions on applications for legal aid and to act for aided persons. Aided persons may only select lawyers who are members of one of those panels.<ref> See section 13(3) of Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
==== Bar Free Legal Services Scheme ====<br />
Bar Free Legal Services Scheme only offers to the applicants whose applications to the Legal Aid Department have formally been rejected. Barristers who have volunteered to help the BFLSS are placed on a panel. The panel comprises barristers with a range of experience and specialisations. Each of them has offered their services free of charge for 3 days or 20 hours each year. No barrister is obliged to take on a particular case under the BFLSS. Barristers on the Panel offer their services free of charge, it may not always be possible for the BFLSS to assist. <ref> See Bar Free Legal Services Scheme https://www.hkba.org/content/bar-free-legal-services-scheme </ref><br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme covers some civil proceedings in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal, the Court of Final Appeal, certain coroner’s inquests and the Mental Health Review Tribunal. It does not cover civil cases such as probate cases and disputes between shareholders or business partners.<br />
<br />
In order to successfully apply for legal aid through the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme, an applicant must pass the merits test and the means test. The means test is based on financial resources and in order to be eligible an applicant’s financial resources must not exceed the financial eligibility limit. The Director may waive the upper financial eligibility limit in meritorious cases involving a breach of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (the '''BORO''')<ref> See the full text of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/AE5E078A7CF8E845482575EE007916D8/$FILE/CAP_383_e_b5.pdf </ref> or an inconsistency with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the '''ICCPR''').<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights at http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b3aa0.pdf </ref> <br />
<br />
Applicants must satisfy a merits test by demonstrating that there are reasonable grounds for taking or defending proceedings.<br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme provides legal assistance to persons whose financial resources exceed the upper limit allowed under the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme but whose resources are nevertheless below a certain higher eligibility limit. <br />
<br />
Legal aid is available under the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme for claims for example involving personal injury or death, or medical, dental and legal professional negligence if the claim is likely to exceed a certain threshold. It also covers any claim under the Employees’ Compensation Ordinance and representation for employees in any appeal against an award made by the Labour Tribunal. <br />
<br />
Applicants for the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme are required to pass a means test (which has a higher financial threshold) and the merits test by demonstrating reasonable grounds for taking proceedings. It is not available to people who are defending proceedings, other than defence of counterclaims.<ref> See Part 1 of Schedule 3 to Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, the yearly quota of civil cases overall possibly handled by individual lawyers will be decreased. The quota for barristers will decrease from 20 cases yearly to 15 cases yearly (25% decrease). The quota for solicitors will decrease from 35 cases yearly to 30 cases yearly (15% decrease). <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref><br />
<br />
====Criminal Legal Aid ==== <br />
Criminal legal aid provides the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, a barrister, to represent an accused person. It is available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates’ Court, cases tried in the District Court or CFI, and for all criminal appeals.<br />
<br />
Legal aid is not available in the Magistrates’ Court for cases other than committal proceedings. Assistance might nevertheless be provided in the Magistrates’ Court by the Duty Lawyer Scheme (discussed below).<br />
<br />
Applicants for criminal legal aid through the Legal Aid Department are required to pass: <br />
*(a) a means test (although if an applicant’s financial resources exceed the financial eligibility limit, the Director may waive the upper limit if satisfied that it is in the interests of justice to do so and subject to payment by the applicant of a contribution on higher rates calculated in accordance with the applicant’s financial resources); and <br />
*(b) a merits test (for trials in the District Court and the CFI, legal aid will be granted if it is desirable in the interests of justice to do so; for appeal cases, legal aid will be granted if there are valid grounds for appeal and it is in the interests of justice to do so).<br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, legal aid applicants will have to accept the lawyers assigned by the Department of Legal Aid unless there are “exceptional circumstances” (for example the nominated lawyers have already represented the representatives in lower courts), and aid recipients will no longer be able to choose their own lawyers, according to a consultation paper submitted to the legislature last week. <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref> <ref> ILegal aid reform: Critics fear right to choose lawyer will be undermined but Hong Kong gov’t advisor says plan will be ‘fairer’ https://hongkongfp.com/2021/10/25/legal-aid-reform-critics-fear-right-to-choose-lawyer-will-be-undermined-but-hong-kong-govt-advisor-says-plan-will-be-fairer/ </ref><br />
<br />
====Duty Lawyer Service==== <br />
The Duty Lawyer Service operates the Duty Lawyer Scheme and the Free Legal Advice Scheme.<br />
<ref> See Duty Lawyer Service website at http://www.dutylawyer.org.hk/en/free/free.asp </ref><br />
The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation by qualified lawyers in private practice to eligible defendants appearing in all Magistrates’ Courts, Juvenile Courts and Coroners Courts. Legal aid is not available in Magistrates' Courts except for committal proceedings. The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation to eligible defendants appearing in Magistrates Courts.<br />
<br />
The Free Legal Advice Scheme provides preliminary legal advice to members of the public. The Scheme will not offer any follow up service or representation to applicants. There is no means test and the service is free of charge. Lawyers participate in the scheme on a voluntary basis. <br />
<br />
===Number of lawyers (criminal/civil) === <br />
Law is practised in the HKSAR by both solicitors and barristers.<br />
<br />
In total, there are more than 12,000 practising solicitors and barristers. At the end of May 2022, 939 local solicitor firms and 83 foreign law firms were operating in Hong Kong, including more than half of the Global 100 law firms <ref> https://research.hktdc.com/en/article/MzEzODc5NTk5#:~:text=Hong%20Kong%20is%20the%20international,the%20Global%20100%20law%20firms. </ref><br />
<br />
Both professions are independently governed by professional regulatory bodies in Hong Kong. The Law Society of Hong Kong and the Bar Association of Hong Kong govern the professions of solicitors and barristers respectively.<br />
<br />
==Sources of a defendant's rights== <br />
===National Sources of Defendant's rights=== <br />
Chapter III of the Basic Law prescribes fundamental rights and freedoms in the HKSAR. The BORO also gives domestic effect to the provisions of the ICCPR as applied to the HKSAR. There is no definition of a resident for the purposes of the rights. The scope of each right varies; some are applicable to only "permanent residents" who have a right of abode, whilst other rights apply to everyone. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law sets out fundamental rights in Articles 24 to 42. These include equality before the law and freedom of speech.<ref> Article 27, Basic Law. </ref> <br />
<br />
===International Sources of a defendant's rights=== <br />
Under the Basic Law, multilateral treaties can apply to the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
Article 39 of the Basic Law provides that the provisions of the ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the ICESCR)<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at http://www.cmab.gov.hk/doc/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/icescr.doc </ref> as applied to the HKSAR shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the HKSAR. The ICESCR has not incorporated into local legislation so it is not enforceable. <ref> Ubamaka [2012] HKCFA 87 at §4 https://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UBAMAKA-EDWARD-WILSON-v.-SECRETARY-FOR-SECURITY-AND-ANOTHER.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Articles 4 and 5 of the BORO provide that the freedom of the person is inviolable. No resident may be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful arrest, detention or imprisonment. Arbitrary or unlawful search of the body of any resident or deprivation or restriction of the freedom of the person is prohibited. Article 28 of the Basic Law prohibits torture of any resident or arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of the life of any resident. <br />
<br />
== Police Procedures == <br />
=== Police Questioning === <br />
The Hong Kong Police Force has issued a guidance note to arrested persons in relation to arrest and detention.<ref> See http://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/pol/en/Pol-1128.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Section 54 of the Police Force Ordinance (the '''PFO''')<ref> See the full text of the Police Force Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/7E4D875F6BBDF825482575EE0050597B/$FILE/CAP_232_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that police officers have the power to stop an individual who is acting in a suspicious manner, or an individual reasonably suspected to have committed, be about to commit or be intending to commit any offence. Police may demand that the individual produce identification and may detain the individual for a reasonable period while a police officer enquires about whether or not they have committed an offence. For individuals acting in a suspicious manner, police officers may search the person for anything that may present a danger to the police office or detain them for a reasonably required period where considered necessary. For an individual reasonably suspected of having committed, being about to, or intending to commit any offence, police may search them for anything of value to the investigation and detain them for a period considered reasonable. <br />
<br />
A suspect may not be compelled to answer any questions as suspects enjoy the right to silence.<ref> Rice v Connolly [1996] 3 WLR 17.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Arrest, Search and Seizure Laws === <br />
==== Arrest ==== <br />
'''(a) Police Arrest'''<br />
Subsections 50(1), 50(1A) and 50(1B) of the PFO provide broad powers of arrest where a police officer has a reasonable belief that a person will be charged or a reasonable suspicion of a person’s guilt of any offence:<br />
*(i)with a sentence fixed by law, such as a mandatory sentence; <br />
*(ii)for which a person on first conviction could be sentenced to imprisonment; <br />
*(iii)where the service of a summons would be impracticable; or<br />
*(iv)if the person is liable for deportation.<br />
Under section 50(1) of the PFO, an officer must be able to point to circumstances or events which created or caused the reasonable suspicion that an offence had been or was going to be committed. A reasonable suspicion is more than a mere possibility of guilt but it is not necessary to show a prima facie case that the arrested person is guilty. The test is an objective test. <ref> R v Cheung Wai-wan and Wan Sze-shing v. A-G [1980] HKLR 550.</ref><br />
<br />
'''(b) Citizen's Powers of Arrest''' <br />
Sections 101 and 101A of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (the CPO) provide citizens with the power to arrest a person they reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence for which:<br />
*(i) the sentence is fixed by law; or <br />
*(ii) a person may be sentenced to imprisonment of more than 12 months. <br />
<br />
There is also a common law citizen's power to arrest for breach of the peace. <br />
<br />
'''(c) General principles of Arrest by police officer''' <br />
At the time of arrest the person should be informed of the reason for the arrest. This is required under both the common law<ref> Christie v Leachinsky [1947] AC 573, HL </ref> and Article 5(2) of the BORO. The circumstances in which it is not necessary to notify a person of the reason for their arrest are generally limited to situations when: <br />
*(i) giving the reason might make the arrest more difficult to effect;<ref> R v Ku Kat-sui [1989] 2 HKC 526, HC. </ref><br />
*(ii) the arrested person is resisting arrest to the effect of making it impracticable to give the reason;<ref> HKSAR v Ip Kenneth [2006] 2 HKLRD 433. </ref> or <br />
*(iii) the arrested person is already aware of the reason for the arrest.<ref>Ibid</ref><br />
<br />
Physical force, appropriate conduct or words must be used to make it clear that an arrest is occurring. It must be made clear to the arrested person that he is not free to go.<ref> Shaabin Bin Hussein v Chong Fook-kam [1970] AC 942, PC. </ref> Any person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of crime or in effecting or assisting in the lawful arrest of offenders or suspected offenders or of persons unlawfully at large.<ref> See section 101A(1) of Cap 221.</ref><br />
<br />
Section 50(2) of the PFO provides that an officer may use all means necessary to effect the arrest if the suspect forcibly resists or attempts to evade it.<br />
<br />
Section 40(5) of the PFO provides that police have the right to search the arrested person or the premises in which the person was arrested if a lawful arrest is made. They also have the right to take items found in any such search if the arresting officer reasonably expects those items to be of value in the investigation.<br />
<br />
==== Search and seizure ==== <br />
Premises in the HKSAR may be searched with or without a warrant. Warrants may be issued under section 50(7) of the PFO by a magistrate. These allow police to enter, search for and seize property. There must be reasonable grounds to suspect that an item of value to an investigation may be located within premises in order for a warrant to be issued. <br />
<br />
There are both common law and statutory authorities giving police powers to search premises without a warrant. The common law power allows police to search the area where an individual was arrested and to seize any appropriate item. This power should only be exercised when it is reasonably necessary and where it is reasonably impractical to obtain a search warrant. Sections 50(3), (4), (5) and (6) of the PFO provide police with further powers of search in order to make an arrest or search for items which are of value to the investigation.<br />
<br />
Section 10C of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) (the ICAC Ordinance)<ref> See the full text of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurAllEngDoc/A3E9ED78744D8631482575EE004CB37D/$FILE/CAP_204_e_b5.pdf </ref> allows officers of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (the ICAC) to search the premises where an individual is arrested whom they reasonably suspect is guilty of an offence under the ICAC Ordinance.<br />
<br />
===Line-ups (identification parades) and other identification procedures=== <br />
There are no statutory rules regarding the conduct of identification parades in the HKSAR. There are nevertheless official police procedures which are set out in the Police Force Procedures Manual. <br />
<br />
An identification parade is generally composed of a suspect and eight actors of similar appearance. It is organised and conducted by a senior police officer not involved in the investigation of the case. There must be no suggestion to witnesses regarding which person is the suspect. The suspect’s legal advisor can be present.<br />
<br />
Confrontation identification, group identification or dock identification might be applicable if the accused refuses or is otherwise unable to participate in an identification parade. Confrontation identification involves the identification of a suspect immediately after an offence has been committed. Group identification involves the identification of a suspect from a group between apprehension and trial. Dock identification involves the identification of a suspect at trial.<br />
<br />
===Interrogation=== <br />
The process of interrogation in the HKSAR is governed by the 1992 Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Making of Statements (the Rules). The Rules provide that statements must be voluntary and that persons in authority must not use threats, promises or deception. A failure to comply with the Rules may result in the evidence being inadmissible. Judges are entitled to admit evidence at their discretion which the Rules would classify as inadmissible when necessary to ensure a fair trial for the accused but rarely need to exercise such discretion in practice.<br />
<br />
Rule 1 of the Rules provides that during the initial investigation stage police officers are entitled to question any person who they think may have useful information even if they are not a suspect. <br />
<br />
Rule 2 of the Rules provides that police officers must caution the individual before putting more questions to them which relate to the offence once there is evidence that would afford reasonable grounds for suspecting that the individual has committed an offence. If the individual wishes to continue talking after receiving the caution then a contemporaneous record of proceedings must be kept. As far as practicable this record must record the time and place of the questioning and list the persons present.<br />
<br />
Rule 3(a) of the Rules provides a format for cautioning the suspect if they are charged or informed that they may be prosecuted for an offence. The caution is in the following form: <br />
:Do you wish to say anything? You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say will be taken down in writing and may be given in evidence.<br />
<br />
A contemporaneous record must be kept of this questioning. <br />
<br />
Rule 6(a) of the Rules provides that wherever possible all interviews should be conducted in the mother tongue of the individual being questioned.<br />
<br />
Direction 8(1) of the Rules provides that individuals in custody or present with the police and under investigation should be allowed to speak to their friends or family by telephone and consult and communicate privately with their lawyer in writing or on the telephone provided that it will not cause an unreasonable delay or hindrance to the investigation or the administration of justice. <br />
<br />
==Police Powers== <br />
=== Stopping and Detaining a suspect=== <br />
Article 5 of the BORO and Article 28 of the Basic Law require restraint of a person to be legally authorised. <br />
<br />
Section 54 of the PFO provides that an officer may stop and detain for a reasonable period and search as appropriate:<br />
*(a) any person acting in a suspicious manner; or <br />
*(b) anyone whom the police reasonably suspect of having committed or being about to commit or intending to commit an offence.<br />
<br />
There is no power of arrest under section 54 of the PFO. The general powers of arrest are set out in section 50(1) of the PFO. An arrest must conform to these requirements.<br />
<br />
===Questioning a suspect pre-arrest=== <br />
The right to silence exists both before and after arrest and it is inappropriate to use an individual’s silence against them in any way.<ref> Lee Fuk Hing v HKSAR (2004) 7 HKCFAR 600.</ref> However, sections 3 and 4 of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455)<ref> See the full text of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/4D1FF665EFF4E8B0482575EF0009EBA1/$FILE/CAP_455_e_b5.pdf </ref> override this right: a CFI judge may make an order to compel individuals to answer questions relating to the investigation of organised crime. In addition, section 14 of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201)<ref> See the full text of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurEngOrd/660A25EA15B8C9D6482575EE004C5BF1/$FILE/CAP_201_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that ICAC may request a judge in a bribe investigation to order an individual to provide a statement explaining the source of money or property. <br />
<br />
== Pre Trial Procedures == <br />
A number of principles of defence, including those provided by the Basic Law, have been given effect through the enactment of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Cap 221) (the CPO) and the Legal Aid Rules. Other principles have been given effect by way of the common law. These principles are not distinct. For example, Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that "everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law". This principle is given practical effect in the CPO. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law guarantees principles of defence including:<br />
*(a) equality before the courts (Article 10);<br />
*(b) the right to a fair and public trial by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law (Article 10);<br />
*(c) the right to trial by jury in the most serious cases;<br />
*(d) the presumption of innocence (Article 11);<br />
*(e) the burden of proof lies with the prosecution;<br />
*(f) the standard of proof is ‘beyond reasonable doubt’;<br />
*(g) the right to prompt and detailed information as to the nature and cause of the charge;<br />
*(h) adequate time for preparation of the defence case;<br />
*(i) the right not to be tried or punished for an offence for which a suspect has already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law (Article 11);<br />
*(j) the right to legal representation;<br />
*(k) the right to be tried without undue delay;<br />
*(l) the right to legal assistance;<br />
*(m) the right to call witnesses and secure their presence in court;<br />
*(n) the right to cross-examine prosecution witnesses;<br />
*(o) the right to have the free service of an interpreter;<br />
*(p) the right to remain silent in court;<br />
*(q) the right to appeal either or both of conviction and sentence; and<br />
*(r) the limited right to bail pending trial or appeal depending on the gravity of the offence and surrounding circumstances.<br />
the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
*(s) the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
<br />
==Rights of the accused at all times== <br />
===Double jeopardy===<br />
Article 11(6) of the BORO provides that no one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which they have already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Presumption of innocence=== <br />
Article 11(1) of the BORO provides for the presumption of innocence. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. <br />
<br />
=== Right against self-incrimination=== <br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that the defendant has the right no to be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt. <br />
<br />
=== Witnesses === <br />
The prosecution and the defendant may use witness evidence to support their case. Article 11(2)(e) of the BORO provides the defendant with the right to examine or have examined witnesses brought against them and to have witnesses present on their behalf. <br />
<br />
===Rights during trial=== <br />
Article 11(2) (f) of the BORO provides that accused persons have the right to an interpreter during the trial if they cannot speak or understand the language used in court. <br />
<br />
===Right to an appeal=== <br />
Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to have their conviction and sentence reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law (meaning an appellate court or tribunal). <br />
<br />
===Ex-post facto punishment (retrospective punishment)=== <br />
Article 12 of the BORO provides that there is no retrospective punishment in the HKSAR for acts or omissions which did not constitute a criminal offence at the time committed. Heavier penalties cannot be imposed other than those applicable at the time the offence was committed. <br />
<br />
==Fair trial Rights == <br />
Article 87 of the Basic Law provides that all defendants are guaranteed the right to a fair trial without delay and that they shall be presumed innocent until convicted. <br />
<br />
===Right to counsel=== <br />
Article 11(2)(d) of the Basic Law provides that all persons in the HKSAR have the right to seek legal assistance. All individuals have the right to defend themselves through legal assistance of their own choosing. Individuals have the right to legal assistance which should be without payment if they do not have sufficient means to pay. Further, Article 11(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused persons must be given adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence and communicate with their chosen counsel. <br />
<br />
===Right to habeas corpus===<br />
Article 22A of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4)<ref> See the full text of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165d2fee3fa94825755e0033e532/E3C89D7AC07002EE482575EE002A70D9/$FILE/CAP_4_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that an application for a habeas corpus writ may be made to the CFI alleging that an applicant is being unlawfully detained and requesting the issuing of a writ of habeas corpus. The detained individual, or any other person on their behalf can make an application. As soon as practicable after receiving the application the CFI must inquire into the allegation. All proceedings must be conducted in open court. If satisfied that the application has substance the CFI can order the issue of a writ of habeas corpus directing that the person with custody over the applicant bring the applicant before the Court at a specified date to certify the grounds for detention or bring the person with custody over the applicant to Court to justify the lawfulness of the detention. If satisfied that the application has no substance the CFI may dismiss it.<br />
<br />
===Right to notice of charges===<br />
Article 11(2)(a) of the BORO provides that all individuals should be informed of the nature and cause of the charges against them and in detail in a language they can understand. <br />
<br />
===Right to non-self incrimination===<br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that individuals cannot be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt.<br />
<br />
===Right to a fair and speedy trial===<br />
Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge must promptly be brought before a judge or legal officer. Individuals are entitled to a trial within a reasonable time or to release from detention. Further, Article 5(4) of the BORO provides that individuals deprived of their liberty are entitled to initiate proceedings before a court to decide the lawfulness of their detention. Article 5(5) of the BORO provides that individuals who are unlawfully arrested or detained have enforceable rights to compensation. Article 11(2)(c) of the BORO provides further rights to be tried without undue delay.<br />
<br />
===Rights pre-trial===<br />
Article 6(2)(a) of the BORO provides that accused persons shall be segregated from convicted persons and subject to separate treatment, save in exceptional circumstances. Further, 6(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused juveniles must be separated from adults and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication. Articles 6(3) and 11(3) of the BORO provide that the procedure for juveniles should take into account their age and the desirability of promoting their rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
===Right to an independent and impartial court ===<br />
Article 10 of the BORO provides that individuals have the right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law and to a fair and public hearing. All persons are equal before the courts and tribunals. In some instances the public and press may be excluded from all or part of the trial. <br />
<br />
===Right to disclosure===<br />
Defendants have the right to receive relevant information from the prosecution regarding their cases even if the information may be injurious to the prosecution’s claim. The prosecution is required to inform the defendant of any discreditable behaviour of a prosecution witness that may affect their assessment as a witness. Information may be withheld from the defendant if considered prejudicial to the public interest. This duty of disclosure is both a statutory and common law duty. The statutory source of this duty is provided in Article 39 and 87 of the Basic Law and Article 11(2) of the BORO. The common law duty is derived from the defendant’s right to a fair trial which implies that a defendant should possess adequate knowledge of the prosecution’s case. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, under Article 14 of the National Security Law (NSL), information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
==Rights in prison==<br />
The General Rules for the Government of Prisons (the Prison Rules)<ref> See the full text of the General Rules for the Government of Prisons at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/C91C6D774F99548F482575EE0050CA96/$FILE/CAP_234A_e_b5.pdf </ref> outlines the general conditions of prisons in the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Conditions of confinement===<br />
Rule 54 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisoners have the right to petition the Chief Executive during the first year of their sentence and once every year thereafter unless the Superintendent in charge of the relevant prison considers that there is sufficient cause to justify additional petitions. The Prison Rules do not limit the scope of the subject matter in respect of which a prisoner may petition.<br />
<br />
===Medical care=== <br />
Rule 5 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisons are required to have a hospital or another designated place for the reception of sick prisoners. All prisoners undergo a physical examination on admission that is conducted as soon as possible after prisoners are admitted. Rule 14 of the Prison Rules provides that prisoners must be examined separately by a medical officer who will create a record on the state of their health. The physical examination should be conducted on the date of admission into prison or within 24 hours of admission. Prisoners may obtain medical treatment in prison or in one of the two custodial wards at the government hospital. Prisoners have access to dental care and specialist treatment if required. <br />
<br />
===Women’s rights=== <br />
Rules 6, 7 and 10 of the Prison Rules provide that female prisoners must be kept in premises entirely separate from male prisoners. Female premises must be controlled by female officers. Male officers may only enter female premises on duty and in the company of a female officer. Female prisoners should only be searched by female officers. <br />
Rule 21 of the Prison Rules contains further rights for female prisoners with children. The child of a female prisoner may be received into prison with its mother during the normal lactation period. The child can remain with the mother until a medical officer certifies that the child is in a condition fit to be removed. The medical officer will report to the Commissioner of prisons as to whether it is necessary or desirable for the child to remain in the prison once the child reaches nine months or is over that age. No child over the age of three years may remain in prison. <br />
<br />
==Court procedures== <br />
===Preliminary investigation and trial=== <br />
Police generally decide whether to charge a suspect. Section 52(1) of the PFO provides that a defendant must be brought before a magistrate within 48 hours and without unreasonable delay if charged. During this period lawyers should deal with the police officers in charge of the case. A magistrate has the responsibility to decide whether to issue bail or remand the defendant into custody. The matter is then sent to the prosecution’s office. The prosecution will decide to proceed with the same charge, amend the charge or withdraw the charge completely. When deciding whether to charge or not the prosecution must take into account the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice.<ref> See the full text of the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/ajls/papers/aj0203cb2-sppp-e-scan.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===Bail=== <br />
Bail means release of a person from detention based on an undertaking, with or without conditions, to surrender to custody as ordered by the court or directed by the police. There is a presumption of entitlement to bail. Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that<br />
<br />
:it shall not be the general rule that persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be subject to guarantees to appear for trial.<br />
<br />
However, Article 42(2) of the NSL rejects the presumption of for cases governed by the NSL: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
So far, the prosecution still cannot ask for review (by CA or CFA) of the CFI judge’s decision to release a Defendant on bail even under the National Security Law <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at § 6 https://legalref.judiciary.hk/lrs/common/search/search_result_detail_frame.jsp?DIS=133491&QS=%2B&TP=JU&ILAN=en </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
Section 52 of the PFO allows police to grant bail if the offence is not serious and there is no reason to detain the defendant. The individual will be charged and appear before a magistrate if police bail is not given. The defendant will be remanded into police custody or gaol custody. Any time on remand will count towards a subsequent custodial sentence.<br />
<br />
Two forms of bail are available to the defendant: <br />
*(a) Police bail<br />
The individual will generally be granted bail by the police in charge of the station after they are charged. If the charge is very serious bail may not be granted by the officer. Provided the charge is not yet laid, an individual may be released on cash bail or recognisance that they will return to the police station if required. <br />
*(b) Magistrates’ bail<br />
Police bail will expire once an individual is brought in front of a magistrate and magistrates’ bail will then apply. Magistrates’ bail is given generally and may include certain conditions. Bail may not be given if it is likely that the individual will interfere with witnesses, the offence is serious or there is a strong likelihood that the individual will abscond. Part 1A of the CPO contains the rules that relate to magistrates’ bail. If an individual is charged with murder or treason they will need to seek bail from a CFI judge.<br />
<br />
The presumption in favour of bail in Part 9D(1) of the CPO is “[subject] to this section and section 9G”. Part 9D(2) of the CPO states that the grant of bail may be subject to conditions. Part 9G(1) of CPO lists the possible basis for refusing bail. If such grounds are not positively made out, bail is granted. The rule embodies the presumption in favour of bail. <br />
<br />
For cases governed by the NSL, that presumption is excluded in the first instance by Section 42(2) of NSL. The starting-point is that no bail shall be granted unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the accused “will not continue to commit acts endangering national security”. Plainly, it introduces a considerably more stringent threshold requirement. Another point of distinction is that Section 42(2) of NSL does not refer to the risk of committing an offence but to a risk that the accused will “continue” to “commit acts endangering national security” if granted bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §53 </ref> .The judge, in answering the NSL 42(2) question, may decide that in all the circumstances including the factors listed in Section 9D(2) and 9G(2) CPO, and having duly considered possible bail conditions, he or she does not have sufficient grounds for believing that the defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security and thus refuse bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §57 & 58 </ref>. To conclude, Section 42(2) NSL imports a stringent threshold requirement for bail applications <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §70 </ref> .<br />
<br />
It should be noted that in the NSL cases, the rules governing bail in general are subject to any specific changes effected by NSL 42(2) which are<br />
made to prevail by Section 62 of NSL.<br />
<br />
===Assessing the admissibility of evidence=== <br />
A voir dire will be held in the CFI if issues arise regarding the admissibility of evidence. This is a mini trial to determine the admissibility of evidence and is generally held in the absence of a jury. The preferred method for the Magistrates’ and District Court to assess the admissibility of evidence is the ‘alternative procedure’. In this method questions are determined within the trial rather than in a separate mini trial. This is possible as these courts do not involve a jury. This is mandatory where a so-called double-barrelled attack is made by the defence or the accused not only denies making the confession, but also asserts that the police mistreated him <ref> Thongjai & Anor v The Queen CACC608/1994 at line 13 of p.7 </ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Trial === <br />
Trials in the Magistrates’ Court take place in front of a magistrate. The magistrate is not under any obligation to provide reasons for their verdict but will often do so in practice. Magistrates are required to provide reasons when deciding an appeal case. Trials in District Court are before a single Judge. District Court judges must supply reasons within 21 days of delivering a judgment.<br />
<br />
Trials in the CFI will be conducted before a jury. NSL cases are the exception. Section 4 of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3)<ref> See the full text of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/9B7D35E42635E9EA482575EE002A5989/$FILE/CAP_3_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that jurors must be between the ages of 21 and 65 years, be a resident in the HKSAR, be of sound mind, not be affected by blindness, deafness or other disabilities affecting service, be of good character and have sufficient knowledge of the English language.<br />
<br />
Once the jury is empanelled the case begins with the prosecution explaining the offence and facts to the jury and identifying the witnesses. The prosecution will then call on the prosecution witnesses to give evidence and the witnesses may be cross-examined by the defence counsel. After the prosecution has pleaded their case the defence may make a “no case” submission. The judge or magistrate must direct the jury to acquit the defendant if the prosecution case, even taken at its highest, would not allow a jury to convict the defendant. If there is no ‘no-case’ submission, the defence counsel then presents their case. Following this, the both parties may make a closing submission. The judge will sum up the facts of the case and direct the jury who will deliberate their verdict. The jury will deliver their verdict and the judge will decide on sentencing appropriately.<br />
<br />
===Assessing=== <br />
All matters commence in the Magistrates’ Court. The prosecution sends the case to be heard in the appropriate court depending on the maximum sentence available for the crime - the Magistrates' Court needs to determine the correct court to hear the case. The Magistrates’ Court will hear the case if the maximum sentence is two years or less. If the maximum sentence is seven years or less the case will be heard in the District Court. Other cases will be heard in the CFI where there is no limit to the maximum penalty available.<br />
<br />
===Sentencing===<br />
Sentencing will take place after the offender has been convicted following the jury trial. There are statutory penalties for the majority of offences which consist of a term of imprisonment or a fine. Certain offences such as murder, manslaughter and common law conspiracy are common law offences. Murder has a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment. Sections 2 and 7 of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212)<ref> See the full text of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/43CA4DC0171D9224482575EE004D5CE1/$FILE/CAP_212_e_b5.pdf </ref> provide that manslaughter has a discretionary life imprisonment penalty. Sentencing will take place by a judge in the court that is considered most appropriate.<br />
<br />
*(a) Crimes that have a maximum of two years imprisonment and a fine of $100,000 will generally be heard in the Magistrates’ Court.<br />
*(b) Crimes that have a maximum of seven years imprisonment and no fine limit will be heard in the District Court.<br />
*(c) Crimes that have a maximum sentencing above those listed will be heard in the CFI. <br />
<br />
Maximum sentences are reserved for the most severe offences.<ref> R v Pang Chun-Wai [1993] 1 HKC 233</ref> Sentences may be discounted. A discounted sentence is generally awarded to an early guilty plea. The fact that a defendant has challenged the evidence against them and lost does not preclude them from receiving a discount.<br />
<br />
===Penalties=== <br />
Penalties other than imprisonment are also available: <br />
====Bind-over orders==== <br />
A bind-over order is a promise by the defendant to keep the peace or be of good behaviour and not commit an offence for a specified period of time. If the offence is committed during the specified period then the accused or their surety must pay a sum of money or they may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment. <br />
<br />
====Community service orders==== <br />
A community service order may be made pursuant to the Community Service Orders Ordinance (Cap 378) if the accused is 14 years of age or older.<ref> HKSAR v Chow Chak Man and Another [1999] 2 HKC 659, CA.</ref> The community service order may be for a maximum of 240 hours of unpaid work over a period of 12 months. Community service orders may only be given with the consent of the accused.<br />
<br />
====Compensation orders====<br />
Section 98 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227)<ref> See the full text of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/FCE2EE462FE99FF0482575EE004FC664/$FILE/CAP_227_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that a magistrate may order an offender to pay compensation to the victim if the magistrate thinks that the paying of compensation is reasonable. Compensation orders are available for personal injury, and loss or damage to property. There is a compensation limit of $100,000. A compensation order is an addition to the main sentence and does not replace it.<br />
<br />
====Confiscation orders====<br />
Confiscation orders apply to drug trafficking and organised crime offences. The CFI and the District Court may order that the proceeds of criminal activity be confiscated.<br />
<br />
====Young defendants====<br />
Defendants who are male and aged between fourteen and twenty-five years may be sentenced to a detention centre order for a period of between three to twelve months in a centre which specialises in receiving young offenders. <br />
<br />
The Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap 225)<ref> See the full text of the Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap25) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D9FF47BCCCF15547482575EE004F6ABE/$FILE/CAP_225_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that young males aged between ten and fifteen years may be sentenced to attend reformatory school for a period of between one to three years. <br />
<br />
The Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 567)<ref> See the full text of the Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr0001/english/ord/ord011-01-e.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty-one years may be ordered to attend a rehabilitation centre in which they are to reside after studying, working or engaging in other approved activities<br />
<br />
The Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280)<ref> See the full text of the Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/6400D7B668DEA1DF482575EE00565EDB/$FILE/CAP_280_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty years may be detained in a training centre to undergo a period of training to reform the offender’s character.<br />
<br />
====Rehabilitation====<br />
Convicted persons may be sentenced to spend a period of between two to twelve months in a drug addiction treatment centre. Defendants must be assessed in order to determine their suitability for the cure and rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
====Disqualification of political rights====<br />
This is available in the NSL cases. <br />
<br />
===Appeals===<br />
There is no common law right to an appeal in the HKSAR to the effect that appeals must be made pursuant to an applicable Ordinance.<br />
<br />
A magistrate’s decision is appealed to the CFI. CFI and District Court decisions are appealed to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Final Appeal hears appeals as the final court of the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
====Conviction==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their conviction. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
====Sentence==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their sentence. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
Section 81A of the CPO provides that the Secretary for Justice may, with the leave of the Court of Appeal, appeal against a sentence for being wrong in principle, manifestly excessive or manifestly inadequate.<br />
<br />
==The National Security Law (NSL)==<br />
===Background=== <br />
Since the PRC’s resumption of the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, the HKSAR has been constitutionally obliged to enact a National Security Law (NSL) according to the Article 23 of the Basic Law (“BL 23”). <br />
<br />
Although a draft law was prepared after widespread consultation by the HKSAR Government in 2003, it was withdrawn in the face of political opposition and no such law has been locally enacted despite the passage of some 23 years <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at §10 </ref> . <br />
<br />
Especially since Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, the discontent among the public has been a challenge to the authority of the PRC. The Central Authorities decided to take such legislation into their own hands. The HKSAR government supported it and claimed that the HKSAR was facing an increasingly serious situation in relation to national security <ref> CE's Statement 22/05/2020 at ¶2 (https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202005/22/P2020052200488.htm) </ref> . On 30 June 2020, the NPCSC duly decided to add the NSL to the list of laws in Annex III of the Basic Law to be applied locally by way of promulgation by the HKSAR. From the time the NSL was enacted up to June 2023, 260 people have been arrested on national security law grounds <ref> https://hongkongfp.com/2023/07/06/national-security-4-men-arrested-by-hong-kong-police-over-alleged-support-of-activists-abroad/. </ref><br />
<br />
Some sections of the NSL are discussed below.<br />
<br />
===The Freedom of Speech=== <br />
Article 4 of the NSL expressly stipulates that human rights shall be respected and protected in safeguarding national security in the HKSAR. The rights and freedoms, including the freedoms of speech, of the press, of publication, of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration, which the residents of the HKSAR enjoy shall be protected in accordance with the law.<br />
<br />
===The Rule of Law===<br />
Article 5 affirms the principle of the rule of law, presumption of innocence and double jeopardy. <br />
<br />
===Public Promotion and Education===<br />
Articles 9 and 10 requires the HKSAR government to promote national security education in schools and with the public.<br />
<br />
===No Right of Access to Information and No Duty to Disclose===<br />
Article 14 stipulates that information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
===Exclusion of Judicial Review===<br />
Article 14 states that Decisions made by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be amenable to judicial review.<br />
<br />
===The Department for Safeguarding National Security and its Recruitment of Personnel outside Hong Kong===<br />
Article 16 allows the Department to recruit qualified professionals and technical personnel from outside the HKSAR to provide assistance in the performance of duties for safeguarding national security. <br />
<br />
The duties and functions of the department are set out in Article 17:<br />
(1) collecting and analysing intelligence and information concerning national security;<br />
(2) planning, coordinating and enforcing measures and operations for safeguarding national security;<br />
(3) investigating offences endangering national security;<br />
(4) conducting counter-interference investigation and national security review;<br />
(5) carrying out tasks of safeguarding national security assigned by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; and<br />
(6) performing other duties and functions necessary for the enforcement of this Law.<br />
<br />
===Offences===<br />
Offences listed in Chapter III include “Secession”; “Subversion”; “Terrorist Activities”; and “Collusion with a Foreign Country or with External Elements to Endanger National Security” by seriously disrupting the formulation and implementation of laws or policies, requesting a foreign country or an institution to impose sanctions, or provoking by unlawful means hatred among Hong Kong residents towards the Central People’s Government or the Government of the Region, which is likely to cause serious consequences. In ''HKSAR v. Ma Chun Man,'' <ref> [2021] 1 HKC 316 at §21 </ref> the court explained that Article 21 “Secession” does not require violence as an element, and found that the chanting of slogans could be contrary to a ‘peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression’ or a ‘mere publicity’ <ref> §27 </ref>. <br />
<br />
===Related Offences===<br />
*a) Failure to provide information<br />
**i) The offence is derived from Article 43 of the NSL, which empowers the Hong Kong Chief Executive to enact additional rules for applying measures when the Hong Kong Police Force is handling cases concerning offences endangering national security. Chow Hang-Tung and two other former leaders of the Hong Kong Allicance were convicted for failure to provide information to the police under the national secuirty law.<br />
<br />
*b)<br />
**i) Although the offence of sedition is not included in the NSL, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal ruled in December 2021 that Sedition under the Crimes Ordinance is an offence endangering National Security. A more stringent bail threshold may be applied to these crimes.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Political Rights===<br />
Article 35 disqualifies a convicted person from the right to vote and the right to stand for election. It also disqualifies such a person from holding any public office in the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
===Trial===<br />
Article 41 provides that the trial shall be conducted in an open court. However, when circumstances arise such as the trial involving State secrets or public order, all or part of the trial shall be closed to the media and the public but the judgment shall be delivered in an open court.<br />
<br />
===Bail===<br />
Article 42(2) rejects the presumption of bail: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Judges===<br />
Article 44 adds a restriction on judges that a person shall not be designated as a judge to adjudicate a case concerning offence endangering national security if he or she has made any statement or behaved in any manner endangering national security. A designated judge shall be removed from the designation list if he or she makes any statement or behaves in any manner endangering national security during the term of office.<br />
<br />
===Absence of Jury===<br />
Article 46 allows for the Secretary for Justice to remove the jury in the NSL cases on the grounds of, among others, the protection of State secrets, involvement of foreign factors in the case, and the protection of personal safety of jurors and their family members.<br />
<br />
===Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR===<br />
Chapter V lays down the responsibilities and operation of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR. The staff of the Office shall be jointly dispatched by relevant national security authorities under the Central People’s Government. Article 55 specifies that the Office itself shall exercise jurisdiction over a case concerning offence endangering national security under this Law, if the HKSAR is unable to effectively enforce this Law; or a major and imminent threat to national security has occurred.<br />
<br />
====Prosecution and Adjudication by the PRC====<br />
Article 56 confers the power of prosecution to the Supreme People’s Procuratorate and adjudication to the Supreme People’s Court in cases pursuant to Article of this Law.<br />
<br />
====Application of other National Laws of the PRC====<br />
Article 57 prescribe the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China and other related national laws to procedural matters, including those related to criminal investigation, examination and prosecution, trial, and execution of penalty, in respect of cases over which jurisdiction is exercised pursuant to Article 55 of this Law. <br />
<br />
===Legal Responsibilities of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR and its staff===<br />
Article 60 provides that the acts performed by them in accordance with this Law shall not be subject to the jurisdiction of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Hong_Kong&diff=381116Hong Kong2023-10-04T11:31:31Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|Hong Kong}}<br />
<br />
==Introduction== <br />
===Type of System=== <br />
The legal system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (the '''HKSAR''') differs from that of the majority of the People’s Republic of China (the ''PRC'') and is based on the common law. This is because Hong Kong was previously a British colony. On 1 July 1997 Hong Kong was handed over to the PRC.<br />
<br />
However, Article 57 of the National Security Law (''NSL'') allows the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and other related national laws to some cases. <ref> See the full text of the NSL at: https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20202448e/egn2020244872.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===The Basic Law and the Continuation of the Existing Legal System after 1 July 1997=== <br />
The constitutional framework of the HKSAR is provided by the Basic Law. It has been enacted by the National People’s Congress (the NPC) of the PRC under Article 31 of the Chinese Constitution.<br />
<br />
The Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the PRC on the Question of Hong Kong (the Joint Declaration) and the Basic Law guarantee the continuance of the pre-existing legal system after the PRC regained sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
The laws in force in Hong Kong before 1 July 1997 continued to apply in the HKSAR after that date except for those which contravened the Basic Law. Some legislation was adapted to ensure compliance with the Basic Law and to reflect Hong Kong’s status as a Special Administrative Region of the PRC.<br />
<br />
===The Courts=== <br />
The existing courts and tribunals were re-established on 1 July 1997 although some were renamed. The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was established to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal. All serving judges were reappointed by the HKSAR’s Chief Executive on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
Pursuant to the Basic Law, judges from other common law jurisdictions may be invited to sit on the Court of Final Appeal.<br />
<br />
The courts in Hong Kong are the following:<br />
*Magistrates’ Court<br />
*District Court<br />
*Court of First Instance (the CFI)<br />
*Court of Appeal<br />
*Court of Final Appeal<br />
<br />
The Supreme People’s Court of the PRC has the right of adjudication in cases under Article 56 of the NSL.<br />
<br />
===The Laws=== <br />
The laws in force in the HKSAR are:<br />
*(a) the Basic Law; <ref> See the full text of the Basic Law at: http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/text/en/basiclawtext/ </ref><br />
*(b) the 13 national laws listed in Annex III to the Basic Law as applied to the HKSAR by way of promulgation or legislation;<br />
*(c) the laws in force before 1 July 1997, including the common law, rules of equity, customary law and statutory law, other than those not adopted as laws of the HKSAR by the NPC Standing Committee because they contravene the Basic Law (these laws apply irrespective of whether the conduct occurred prior to 1 July 2007); and<br />
*(d) laws enacted by the HKSAR’s legislature.<br />
<br />
Only national laws relating to defence, foreign affairs or other matters outside the HKSAR’s autonomy may be added to Annex III to the Basic Law. <br />
<br />
All legislation in force in the HKSAR is bilingual. The Chinese and English language versions are equally authentic. All legislation is published in a hard-copy loose-leaf edition and is also available at www.legislation.gov.hk. Preparations are now under way for the establishment of an electronic legislation database with legal status pursuant to the Legislation Publication Ordinance of 2011.<br />
<br />
=== The legal aid situation in Hong Kong === <br />
====Publicly funded legal aid ====<br />
Publicly funded legal aid services are provided through the Legal Aid Department and the Duty Lawyer Service, in accordance with the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91)<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/07BCC0B0FE1EC8A1482575EE0037F553/$FILE/CAP_91_e_b5.pdf </ref> and the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) (the ''Legal Aid Rules'').<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D2405B17B91E99B1482575EE004F1B6D/$FILE/CAP_221D_e_b5.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Eligible applicants receive legal aid through the provision of the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, of a barrister. The Legal Aid Department provides legal representation to eligible applicants in criminal and some civil proceedings. <ref> See the website of the Legal Aid Department at www.lad.gov.hk </ref><br />
<br />
Legal aid is available for cases in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal and the Court of Final Appeal. It is also available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates' Courts.<br />
Any person who is a party to eligible court proceedings may apply for legal aid. Legal aid will be granted if the applicant is able to satisfy the statutory criteria as to financial eligibility and the merits for taking or defending the legal proceedings.<br />
<br />
Where a legal aid certificate is granted, the Director of Legal Aid (the '''Director''') may act for the aided person through lawyers employed in the Legal Aid Department. If the Director does not act for the aided person, he or the aided person may select a solicitor or counsel to act. The Director maintains separate panels of counsel and solicitors who are willing to investigate, report and give opinions on applications for legal aid and to act for aided persons. Aided persons may only select lawyers who are members of one of those panels.<ref> See section 13(3) of Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
==== Bar Free Legal Services Scheme ====<br />
Bar Free Legal Services Scheme only offers to the applicants whose applications to the Legal Aid Department have formally been rejected. Barristers who have volunteered to help the BFLSS are placed on a panel. The panel comprises barristers with a range of experience and specialisations. Each of them has offered their services free of charge for 3 days or 20 hours each year. No barrister is obliged to take on a particular case under the BFLSS. Barristers on the Panel offer their services free of charge, it may not always be possible for the BFLSS to assist. <ref> See Bar Free Legal Services Scheme https://www.hkba.org/content/bar-free-legal-services-scheme </ref><br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme covers some civil proceedings in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal, the Court of Final Appeal, certain coroner’s inquests and the Mental Health Review Tribunal. It does not cover civil cases such as probate cases and disputes between shareholders or business partners.<br />
<br />
In order to successfully apply for legal aid through the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme, an applicant must pass the merits test and the means test. The means test is based on financial resources and in order to be eligible an applicant’s financial resources must not exceed the financial eligibility limit. The Director may waive the upper financial eligibility limit in meritorious cases involving a breach of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (the '''BORO''')<ref> See the full text of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/AE5E078A7CF8E845482575EE007916D8/$FILE/CAP_383_e_b5.pdf </ref> or an inconsistency with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the '''ICCPR''').<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights at http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b3aa0.pdf </ref> <br />
<br />
Applicants must satisfy a merits test by demonstrating that there are reasonable grounds for taking or defending proceedings.<br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme provides legal assistance to persons whose financial resources exceed the upper limit allowed under the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme but whose resources are nevertheless below a certain higher eligibility limit. <br />
<br />
Legal aid is available under the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme for claims for example involving personal injury or death, or medical, dental and legal professional negligence if the claim is likely to exceed a certain threshold. It also covers any claim under the Employees’ Compensation Ordinance and representation for employees in any appeal against an award made by the Labour Tribunal. <br />
<br />
Applicants for the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme are required to pass a means test (which has a higher financial threshold) and the merits test by demonstrating reasonable grounds for taking proceedings. It is not available to people who are defending proceedings, other than defence of counterclaims.<ref> See Part 1 of Schedule 3 to Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, the yearly quota of civil cases overall possibly handled by individual lawyers will be decreased. The quota for barristers will decrease from 20 cases yearly to 15 cases yearly (25% decrease). The quota for solicitors will decrease from 35 cases yearly to 30 cases yearly (15% decrease). <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref><br />
<br />
====Criminal Legal Aid ==== <br />
Criminal legal aid provides the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, a barrister, to represent an accused person. It is available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates’ Court, cases tried in the District Court or CFI, and for all criminal appeals.<br />
<br />
Legal aid is not available in the Magistrates’ Court for cases other than committal proceedings. Assistance might nevertheless be provided in the Magistrates’ Court by the Duty Lawyer Scheme (discussed below).<br />
<br />
Applicants for criminal legal aid through the Legal Aid Department are required to pass: <br />
*(a) a means test (although if an applicant’s financial resources exceed the financial eligibility limit, the Director may waive the upper limit if satisfied that it is in the interests of justice to do so and subject to payment by the applicant of a contribution on higher rates calculated in accordance with the applicant’s financial resources); and <br />
*(b) a merits test (for trials in the District Court and the CFI, legal aid will be granted if it is desirable in the interests of justice to do so; for appeal cases, legal aid will be granted if there are valid grounds for appeal and it is in the interests of justice to do so).<br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, legal aid applicants will have to accept the lawyers assigned by the Department of Legal Aid unless there are “exceptional circumstances” (for example the nominated lawyers have already represented the representatives in lower courts), and aid recipients will no longer be able to choose their own lawyers, according to a consultation paper submitted to the legislature last week. <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref> <ref> ILegal aid reform: Critics fear right to choose lawyer will be undermined but Hong Kong gov’t advisor says plan will be ‘fairer’ https://hongkongfp.com/2021/10/25/legal-aid-reform-critics-fear-right-to-choose-lawyer-will-be-undermined-but-hong-kong-govt-advisor-says-plan-will-be-fairer/ </ref><br />
<br />
====Duty Lawyer Service==== <br />
The Duty Lawyer Service operates the Duty Lawyer Scheme and the Free Legal Advice Scheme.<br />
<ref> See Duty Lawyer Service website at http://www.dutylawyer.org.hk/en/free/free.asp </ref><br />
The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation by qualified lawyers in private practice to eligible defendants appearing in all Magistrates’ Courts, Juvenile Courts and Coroners Courts. Legal aid is not available in Magistrates' Courts except for committal proceedings. The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation to eligible defendants appearing in Magistrates Courts.<br />
<br />
The Free Legal Advice Scheme provides preliminary legal advice to members of the public. The Scheme will not offer any follow up service or representation to applicants. There is no means test and the service is free of charge. Lawyers participate in the scheme on a voluntary basis. <br />
<br />
===Number of lawyers (criminal/civil) === <br />
Law is practised in the HKSAR by both solicitors and barristers.<br />
<br />
In total, there are more than 12,000 practising solicitors and barristers. At the end of May 2022, 939 local solicitor firms and 83 foreign law firms were operating in Hong Kong, including more than half of the Global 100 law firms <ref> https://research.hktdc.com/en/article/MzEzODc5NTk5#:~:text=Hong%20Kong%20is%20the%20international,the%20Global%20100%20law%20firms. </ref><br />
<br />
Both professions are independently governed by professional regulatory bodies in Hong Kong. The Law Society of Hong Kong and the Bar Association of Hong Kong govern the professions of solicitors and barristers respectively.<br />
<br />
==Sources of a defendant's rights== <br />
===National Sources of Defendant's rights=== <br />
Chapter III of the Basic Law prescribes fundamental rights and freedoms in the HKSAR. The BORO also gives domestic effect to the provisions of the ICCPR as applied to the HKSAR. There is no definition of a resident for the purposes of the rights. The scope of each right varies; some are applicable to only "permanent residents" who have a right of abode, whilst other rights apply to everyone. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law sets out fundamental rights in Articles 24 to 42. These include equality before the law and freedom of speech.<ref> Article 27, Basic Law. </ref> <br />
<br />
===International Sources of a defendant's rights=== <br />
Under the Basic Law, multilateral treaties can apply to the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
Article 39 of the Basic Law provides that the provisions of the ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the ICESCR)<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at http://www.cmab.gov.hk/doc/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/icescr.doc </ref> as applied to the HKSAR shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the HKSAR. The ICESCR has not incorporated into local legislation so it is not enforceable. <ref> Ubamaka [2012] HKCFA 87 at §4 https://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UBAMAKA-EDWARD-WILSON-v.-SECRETARY-FOR-SECURITY-AND-ANOTHER.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Articles 4 and 5 of the BORO provide that the freedom of the person is inviolable. No resident may be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful arrest, detention or imprisonment. Arbitrary or unlawful search of the body of any resident or deprivation or restriction of the freedom of the person is prohibited. Article 28 of the Basic Law prohibits torture of any resident or arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of the life of any resident. <br />
<br />
== Police Procedures == <br />
=== Police Questioning === <br />
The Hong Kong Police Force has issued a guidance note to arrested persons in relation to arrest and detention.<ref> See http://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/pol/en/Pol-1128.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Section 54 of the Police Force Ordinance (the '''PFO''')<ref> See the full text of the Police Force Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/7E4D875F6BBDF825482575EE0050597B/$FILE/CAP_232_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that police officers have the power to stop an individual who is acting in a suspicious manner, or an individual reasonably suspected to have committed, be about to commit or be intending to commit any offence. Police may demand that the individual produce identification and may detain the individual for a reasonable period while a police officer enquires about whether or not they have committed an offence. For individuals acting in a suspicious manner, police officers may search the person for anything that may present a danger to the police office or detain them for a reasonably required period where considered necessary. For an individual reasonably suspected of having committed, being about to, or intending to commit any offence, police may search them for anything of value to the investigation and detain them for a period considered reasonable. <br />
<br />
A suspect may not be compelled to answer any questions as suspects enjoy the right to silence.<ref> Rice v Connolly [1996] 3 WLR 17.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Arrest, Search and Seizure Laws === <br />
==== Arrest ==== <br />
'''(a) Police Arrest'''<br />
Subsections 50(1), 50(1A) and 50(1B) of the PFO provide broad powers of arrest where a police officer has a reasonable belief that a person will be charged or a reasonable suspicion of a person’s guilt of any offence:<br />
*(i)with a sentence fixed by law, such as a mandatory sentence; <br />
*(ii)for which a person on first conviction could be sentenced to imprisonment; <br />
*(iii)where the service of a summons would be impracticable; or<br />
*(iv)if the person is liable for deportation.<br />
Under section 50(1) of the PFO, an officer must be able to point to circumstances or events which created or caused the reasonable suspicion that an offence had been or was going to be committed. A reasonable suspicion is more than a mere possibility of guilt but it is not necessary to show a prima facie case that the arrested person is guilty. The test is an objective test. <ref> R v Cheung Wai-wan and Wan Sze-shing v. A-G [1980] HKLR 550.</ref><br />
<br />
'''(b) Citizen's Powers of Arrest''' <br />
Sections 101 and 101A of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (the CPO) provide citizens with the power to arrest a person they reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence for which:<br />
*(i) the sentence is fixed by law; or <br />
*(ii) a person may be sentenced to imprisonment of more than 12 months. <br />
<br />
There is also a common law citizen's power to arrest for breach of the peace. <br />
<br />
'''(c) General principles of Arrest by police officer''' <br />
At the time of arrest the person should be informed of the reason for the arrest. This is required under both the common law<ref> Christie v Leachinsky [1947] AC 573, HL </ref> and Article 5(2) of the BORO. The circumstances in which it is not necessary to notify a person of the reason for their arrest are generally limited to situations when: <br />
*(i) giving the reason might make the arrest more difficult to effect;<ref> R v Ku Kat-sui [1989] 2 HKC 526, HC. </ref><br />
*(ii) the arrested person is resisting arrest to the effect of making it impracticable to give the reason;<ref> HKSAR v Ip Kenneth [2006] 2 HKLRD 433. </ref> or <br />
*(iii) the arrested person is already aware of the reason for the arrest.<ref>Ibid</ref><br />
<br />
Physical force, appropriate conduct or words must be used to make it clear that an arrest is occurring. It must be made clear to the arrested person that he is not free to go.<ref> Shaabin Bin Hussein v Chong Fook-kam [1970] AC 942, PC. </ref> Any person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of crime or in effecting or assisting in the lawful arrest of offenders or suspected offenders or of persons unlawfully at large.<ref> See section 101A(1) of Cap 221.</ref><br />
<br />
Section 50(2) of the PFO provides that an officer may use all means necessary to effect the arrest if the suspect forcibly resists or attempts to evade it.<br />
<br />
Section 40(5) of the PFO provides that police have the right to search the arrested person or the premises in which the person was arrested if a lawful arrest is made. They also have the right to take items found in any such search if the arresting officer reasonably expects those items to be of value in the investigation.<br />
<br />
==== Search and seizure ==== <br />
Premises in the HKSAR may be searched with or without a warrant. Warrants may be issued under section 50(7) of the PFO by a magistrate. These allow police to enter, search for and seize property. There must be reasonable grounds to suspect that an item of value to an investigation may be located within premises in order for a warrant to be issued. <br />
<br />
There are both common law and statutory authorities giving police powers to search premises without a warrant. The common law power allows police to search the area where an individual was arrested and to seize any appropriate item. This power should only be exercised when it is reasonably necessary and where it is reasonably impractical to obtain a search warrant. Sections 50(3), (4), (5) and (6) of the PFO provide police with further powers of search in order to make an arrest or search for items which are of value to the investigation.<br />
<br />
Section 10C of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) (the ICAC Ordinance)<ref> See the full text of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurAllEngDoc/A3E9ED78744D8631482575EE004CB37D/$FILE/CAP_204_e_b5.pdf </ref> allows officers of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (the ICAC) to search the premises where an individual is arrested whom they reasonably suspect is guilty of an offence under the ICAC Ordinance.<br />
<br />
===Line-ups (identification parades) and other identification procedures=== <br />
There are no statutory rules regarding the conduct of identification parades in the HKSAR. There are nevertheless official police procedures which are set out in the Police Force Procedures Manual. <br />
<br />
An identification parade is generally composed of a suspect and eight actors of similar appearance. It is organised and conducted by a senior police officer not involved in the investigation of the case. There must be no suggestion to witnesses regarding which person is the suspect. The suspect’s legal advisor can be present.<br />
<br />
Confrontation identification, group identification or dock identification might be applicable if the accused refuses or is otherwise unable to participate in an identification parade. Confrontation identification involves the identification of a suspect immediately after an offence has been committed. Group identification involves the identification of a suspect from a group between apprehension and trial. Dock identification involves the identification of a suspect at trial.<br />
<br />
===Interrogation=== <br />
The process of interrogation in the HKSAR is governed by the 1992 Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Making of Statements (the Rules). The Rules provide that statements must be voluntary and that persons in authority must not use threats, promises or deception. A failure to comply with the Rules may result in the evidence being inadmissible. Judges are entitled to admit evidence at their discretion which the Rules would classify as inadmissible when necessary to ensure a fair trial for the accused but rarely need to exercise such discretion in practice.<br />
<br />
Rule 1 of the Rules provides that during the initial investigation stage police officers are entitled to question any person who they think may have useful information even if they are not a suspect. <br />
<br />
Rule 2 of the Rules provides that police officers must caution the individual before putting more questions to them which relate to the offence once there is evidence that would afford reasonable grounds for suspecting that the individual has committed an offence. If the individual wishes to continue talking after receiving the caution then a contemporaneous record of proceedings must be kept. As far as practicable this record must record the time and place of the questioning and list the persons present.<br />
<br />
Rule 3(a) of the Rules provides a format for cautioning the suspect if they are charged or informed that they may be prosecuted for an offence. The caution is in the following form: <br />
:Do you wish to say anything? You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say will be taken down in writing and may be given in evidence.<br />
<br />
A contemporaneous record must be kept of this questioning. <br />
<br />
Rule 6(a) of the Rules provides that wherever possible all interviews should be conducted in the mother tongue of the individual being questioned.<br />
<br />
Direction 8(1) of the Rules provides that individuals in custody or present with the police and under investigation should be allowed to speak to their friends or family by telephone and consult and communicate privately with their lawyer in writing or on the telephone provided that it will not cause an unreasonable delay or hindrance to the investigation or the administration of justice. <br />
<br />
==Police Powers== <br />
=== Stopping and Detaining a suspect=== <br />
Article 5 of the BORO and Article 28 of the Basic Law require restraint of a person to be legally authorised. <br />
<br />
Section 54 of the PFO provides that an officer may stop and detain for a reasonable period and search as appropriate:<br />
*(a) any person acting in a suspicious manner; or <br />
*(b) anyone whom the police reasonably suspect of having committed or being about to commit or intending to commit an offence.<br />
<br />
There is no power of arrest under section 54 of the PFO. The general powers of arrest are set out in section 50(1) of the PFO. An arrest must conform to these requirements.<br />
<br />
===Questioning a suspect pre-arrest=== <br />
The right to silence exists both before and after arrest and it is inappropriate to use an individual’s silence against them in any way.<ref> Lee Fuk Hing v HKSAR (2004) 7 HKCFAR 600.</ref> However, sections 3 and 4 of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455)<ref> See the full text of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/4D1FF665EFF4E8B0482575EF0009EBA1/$FILE/CAP_455_e_b5.pdf </ref> override this right: a CFI judge may make an order to compel individuals to answer questions relating to the investigation of organised crime. In addition, section 14 of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201)<ref> See the full text of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurEngOrd/660A25EA15B8C9D6482575EE004C5BF1/$FILE/CAP_201_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that ICAC may request a judge in a bribe investigation to order an individual to provide a statement explaining the source of money or property. <br />
<br />
== Pre Trial Procedures == <br />
A number of principles of defence, including those provided by the Basic Law, have been given effect through the enactment of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Cap 221) (the CPO) and the Legal Aid Rules. Other principles have been given effect by way of the common law. These principles are not distinct. For example, Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that "everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law". This principle is given practical effect in the CPO. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law guarantees principles of defence including:<br />
*(a) equality before the courts (Article 10);<br />
*(b) the right to a fair and public trial by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law (Article 10);<br />
*(c) the right to trial by jury in the most serious cases;<br />
*(d) the presumption of innocence (Article 11);<br />
*(e) the burden of proof lies with the prosecution;<br />
*(f) the standard of proof is ‘beyond reasonable doubt’;<br />
*(g) the right to prompt and detailed information as to the nature and cause of the charge;<br />
*(h) adequate time for preparation of the defence case;<br />
*(i) the right not to be tried or punished for an offence for which a suspect has already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law (Article 11);<br />
*(j) the right to legal representation;<br />
*(k) the right to be tried without undue delay;<br />
*(l) the right to legal assistance;<br />
*(m) the right to call witnesses and secure their presence in court;<br />
*(n) the right to cross-examine prosecution witnesses;<br />
*(o) the right to have the free service of an interpreter;<br />
*(p) the right to remain silent in court;<br />
*(q) the right to appeal either or both of conviction and sentence; and<br />
*(r) the limited right to bail pending trial or appeal depending on the gravity of the offence and surrounding circumstances.<br />
the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
*(s) the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
<br />
==Rights of the accused at all times== <br />
===Double jeopardy===<br />
Article 11(6) of the BORO provides that no one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which they have already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Presumption of innocence=== <br />
Article 11(1) of the BORO provides for the presumption of innocence. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. <br />
<br />
=== Right against self-incrimination=== <br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that the defendant has the right no to be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt. <br />
<br />
=== Witnesses === <br />
The prosecution and the defendant may use witness evidence to support their case. Article 11(2)(e) of the BORO provides the defendant with the right to examine or have examined witnesses brought against them and to have witnesses present on their behalf. <br />
<br />
===Rights during trial=== <br />
Article 11(2) (f) of the BORO provides that accused persons have the right to an interpreter during the trial if they cannot speak or understand the language used in court. <br />
<br />
===Right to an appeal=== <br />
Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to have their conviction and sentence reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law (meaning an appellate court or tribunal). <br />
<br />
===Ex-post facto punishment (retrospective punishment)=== <br />
Article 12 of the BORO provides that there is no retrospective punishment in the HKSAR for acts or omissions which did not constitute a criminal offence at the time committed. Heavier penalties cannot be imposed other than those applicable at the time the offence was committed. <br />
<br />
==Fair trial Rights == <br />
Article 87 of the Basic Law provides that all defendants are guaranteed the right to a fair trial without delay and that they shall be presumed innocent until convicted. <br />
<br />
===Right to counsel=== <br />
Article 11(2)(d) of the Basic Law provides that all persons in the HKSAR have the right to seek legal assistance. All individuals have the right to defend themselves through legal assistance of their own choosing. Individuals have the right to legal assistance which should be without payment if they do not have sufficient means to pay. Further, Article 11(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused persons must be given adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence and communicate with their chosen counsel. <br />
<br />
===Right to habeas corpus===<br />
Article 22A of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4)<ref> See the full text of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165d2fee3fa94825755e0033e532/E3C89D7AC07002EE482575EE002A70D9/$FILE/CAP_4_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that an application for a habeas corpus writ may be made to the CFI alleging that an applicant is being unlawfully detained and requesting the issuing of a writ of habeas corpus. The detained individual, or any other person on their behalf can make an application. As soon as practicable after receiving the application the CFI must inquire into the allegation. All proceedings must be conducted in open court. If satisfied that the application has substance the CFI can order the issue of a writ of habeas corpus directing that the person with custody over the applicant bring the applicant before the Court at a specified date to certify the grounds for detention or bring the person with custody over the applicant to Court to justify the lawfulness of the detention. If satisfied that the application has no substance the CFI may dismiss it.<br />
<br />
===Right to notice of charges===<br />
Article 11(2)(a) of the BORO provides that all individuals should be informed of the nature and cause of the charges against them and in detail in a language they can understand. <br />
<br />
===Right to non-self incrimination===<br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that individuals cannot be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt.<br />
<br />
===Right to a fair and speedy trial===<br />
Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge must promptly be brought before a judge or legal officer. Individuals are entitled to a trial within a reasonable time or to release from detention. Further, Article 5(4) of the BORO provides that individuals deprived of their liberty are entitled to initiate proceedings before a court to decide the lawfulness of their detention. Article 5(5) of the BORO provides that individuals who are unlawfully arrested or detained have enforceable rights to compensation. Article 11(2)(c) of the BORO provides further rights to be tried without undue delay.<br />
<br />
===Rights pre-trial===<br />
Article 6(2)(a) of the BORO provides that accused persons shall be segregated from convicted persons and subject to separate treatment, save in exceptional circumstances. Further, 6(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused juveniles must be separated from adults and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication. Articles 6(3) and 11(3) of the BORO provide that the procedure for juveniles should take into account their age and the desirability of promoting their rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
===Right to an independent and impartial court ===<br />
Article 10 of the BORO provides that individuals have the right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law and to a fair and public hearing. All persons are equal before the courts and tribunals. In some instances the public and press may be excluded from all or part of the trial. <br />
<br />
===Right to disclosure===<br />
Defendants have the right to receive relevant information from the prosecution regarding their cases even if the information may be injurious to the prosecution’s claim. The prosecution is required to inform the defendant of any discreditable behaviour of a prosecution witness that may affect their assessment as a witness. Information may be withheld from the defendant if considered prejudicial to the public interest. This duty of disclosure is both a statutory and common law duty. The statutory source of this duty is provided in Article 39 and 87 of the Basic Law and Article 11(2) of the BORO. The common law duty is derived from the defendant’s right to a fair trial which implies that a defendant should possess adequate knowledge of the prosecution’s case. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, under Article 14 of the National Security Law (NSL), information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
==Rights in prison==<br />
The General Rules for the Government of Prisons (the Prison Rules)<ref> See the full text of the General Rules for the Government of Prisons at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/C91C6D774F99548F482575EE0050CA96/$FILE/CAP_234A_e_b5.pdf </ref> outlines the general conditions of prisons in the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Conditions of confinement===<br />
Rule 54 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisoners have the right to petition the Chief Executive during the first year of their sentence and once every year thereafter unless the Superintendent in charge of the relevant prison considers that there is sufficient cause to justify additional petitions. The Prison Rules do not limit the scope of the subject matter in respect of which a prisoner may petition.<br />
<br />
===Medical care=== <br />
Rule 5 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisons are required to have a hospital or another designated place for the reception of sick prisoners. All prisoners undergo a physical examination on admission that is conducted as soon as possible after prisoners are admitted. Rule 14 of the Prison Rules provides that prisoners must be examined separately by a medical officer who will create a record on the state of their health. The physical examination should be conducted on the date of admission into prison or within 24 hours of admission. Prisoners may obtain medical treatment in prison or in one of the two custodial wards at the government hospital. Prisoners have access to dental care and specialist treatment if required. <br />
<br />
===Women’s rights=== <br />
Rules 6, 7 and 10 of the Prison Rules provide that female prisoners must be kept in premises entirely separate from male prisoners. Female premises must be controlled by female officers. Male officers may only enter female premises on duty and in the company of a female officer. Female prisoners should only be searched by female officers. <br />
Rule 21 of the Prison Rules contains further rights for female prisoners with children. The child of a female prisoner may be received into prison with its mother during the normal lactation period. The child can remain with the mother until a medical officer certifies that the child is in a condition fit to be removed. The medical officer will report to the Commissioner of prisons as to whether it is necessary or desirable for the child to remain in the prison once the child reaches nine months or is over that age. No child over the age of three years may remain in prison. <br />
<br />
==Court procedures== <br />
===Preliminary investigation and trial=== <br />
Police generally decide whether to charge a suspect. Section 52(1) of the PFO provides that a defendant must be brought before a magistrate within 48 hours and without unreasonable delay if charged. During this period lawyers should deal with the police officers in charge of the case. A magistrate has the responsibility to decide whether to issue bail or remand the defendant into custody. The matter is then sent to the prosecution’s office. The prosecution will decide to proceed with the same charge, amend the charge or withdraw the charge completely. When deciding whether to charge or not the prosecution must take into account the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice.<ref> See the full text of the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/ajls/papers/aj0203cb2-sppp-e-scan.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===Bail=== <br />
Bail means release of a person from detention based on an undertaking, with or without conditions, to surrender to custody as ordered by the court or directed by the police. There is a presumption of entitlement to bail. Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that<br />
<br />
:it shall not be the general rule that persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be subject to guarantees to appear for trial.<br />
<br />
However, Article 42(2) of the NSL rejects the presumption of for cases governed by the NSL: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
So far, the prosecution still cannot ask for review (by CA or CFA) of the CFI judge’s decision to release a Defendant on bail even under the National Security Law <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at § 6 https://legalref.judiciary.hk/lrs/common/search/search_result_detail_frame.jsp?DIS=133491&QS=%2B&TP=JU&ILAN=en </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
Section 52 of the PFO allows police to grant bail if the offence is not serious and there is no reason to detain the defendant. The individual will be charged and appear before a magistrate if police bail is not given. The defendant will be remanded into police custody or gaol custody. Any time on remand will count towards a subsequent custodial sentence.<br />
<br />
Two forms of bail are available to the defendant: <br />
*(a) Police bail<br />
The individual will generally be granted bail by the police in charge of the station after they are charged. If the charge is very serious bail may not be granted by the officer. Provided the charge is not yet laid, an individual may be released on cash bail or recognisance that they will return to the police station if required. <br />
*(b) Magistrates’ bail<br />
Police bail will expire once an individual is brought in front of a magistrate and magistrates’ bail will then apply. Magistrates’ bail is given generally and may include certain conditions. Bail may not be given if it is likely that the individual will interfere with witnesses, the offence is serious or there is a strong likelihood that the individual will abscond. Part 1A of the CPO contains the rules that relate to magistrates’ bail. If an individual is charged with murder or treason they will need to seek bail from a CFI judge.<br />
<br />
The presumption in favour of bail in Part 9D(1) of the CPO is “[subject] to this section and section 9G”. Part 9D(2) of the CPO states that the grant of bail may be subject to conditions. Part 9G(1) of CPO lists the possible basis for refusing bail. If such grounds are not positively made out, bail is granted. The rule embodies the presumption in favour of bail. <br />
<br />
For cases governed by the NSL, that presumption is excluded in the first instance by Section 42(2) of NSL. The starting-point is that no bail shall be granted unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the accused “will not continue to commit acts endangering national security”. Plainly, it introduces a considerably more stringent threshold requirement. Another point of distinction is that Section 42(2) of NSL does not refer to the risk of committing an offence but to a risk that the accused will “continue” to “commit acts endangering national security” if granted bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §53 </ref> .The judge, in answering the NSL 42(2) question, may decide that in all the circumstances including the factors listed in Section 9D(2) and 9G(2) CPO, and having duly considered possible bail conditions, he or she does not have sufficient grounds for believing that the defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security and thus refuse bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §57 & 58 </ref>. To conclude, Section 42(2) NSL imports a stringent threshold requirement for bail applications <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §70 </ref> .<br />
<br />
It should be noted that in the NSL cases, the rules governing bail in general are subject to any specific changes effected by NSL 42(2) which are<br />
made to prevail by Section 62 of NSL.<br />
<br />
===Assessing the admissibility of evidence=== <br />
A voir dire will be held in the CFI if issues arise regarding the admissibility of evidence. This is a mini trial to determine the admissibility of evidence and is generally held in the absence of a jury. The preferred method for the Magistrates’ and District Court to assess the admissibility of evidence is the ‘alternative procedure’. In this method questions are determined within the trial rather than in a separate mini trial. This is possible as these courts do not involve a jury. This is mandatory where a so-called double-barrelled attack is made by the defence or the accused not only denies making the confession, but also asserts that the police mistreated him <ref> Thongjai & Anor v The Queen CACC608/1994 at line 13 of p.7 </ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Trial === <br />
Trials in the Magistrates’ Court take place in front of a magistrate. The magistrate is not under any obligation to provide reasons for their verdict but will often do so in practice. Magistrates are required to provide reasons when deciding an appeal case. Trials in District Court are before a single Judge. District Court judges must supply reasons within 21 days of delivering a judgment.<br />
<br />
Trials in the CFI will be conducted before a jury. NSL cases are the exception. Section 4 of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3)<ref> See the full text of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/9B7D35E42635E9EA482575EE002A5989/$FILE/CAP_3_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that jurors must be between the ages of 21 and 65 years, be a resident in the HKSAR, be of sound mind, not be affected by blindness, deafness or other disabilities affecting service, be of good character and have sufficient knowledge of the English language.<br />
<br />
Once the jury is empanelled the case begins with the prosecution explaining the offence and facts to the jury and identifying the witnesses. The prosecution will then call on the prosecution witnesses to give evidence and the witnesses may be cross-examined by the defence counsel. After the prosecution has pleaded their case the defence may make a “no case” submission. The judge or magistrate must direct the jury to acquit the defendant if the prosecution case, even taken at its highest, would not allow a jury to convict the defendant. If there is no ‘no-case’ submission, the defence counsel then presents their case. Following this, the both parties may make a closing submission. The judge will sum up the facts of the case and direct the jury who will deliberate their verdict. The jury will deliver their verdict and the judge will decide on sentencing appropriately.<br />
<br />
===Assessing=== <br />
All matters commence in the Magistrates’ Court. The prosecution sends the case to be heard in the appropriate court depending on the maximum sentence available for the crime - the Magistrates' Court needs to determine the correct court to hear the case. The Magistrates’ Court will hear the case if the maximum sentence is two years or less. If the maximum sentence is seven years or less the case will be heard in the District Court. Other cases will be heard in the CFI where there is no limit to the maximum penalty available.<br />
<br />
===Sentencing===<br />
Sentencing will take place after the offender has been convicted following the jury trial. There are statutory penalties for the majority of offences which consist of a term of imprisonment or a fine. Certain offences such as murder, manslaughter and common law conspiracy are common law offences. Murder has a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment. Sections 2 and 7 of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212)<ref> See the full text of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/43CA4DC0171D9224482575EE004D5CE1/$FILE/CAP_212_e_b5.pdf </ref> provide that manslaughter has a discretionary life imprisonment penalty. Sentencing will take place by a judge in the court that is considered most appropriate.<br />
<br />
*(a) Crimes that have a maximum of two years imprisonment and a fine of $100,000 will generally be heard in the Magistrates’ Court.<br />
*(b) Crimes that have a maximum of seven years imprisonment and no fine limit will be heard in the District Court.<br />
*(c) Crimes that have a maximum sentencing above those listed will be heard in the CFI. <br />
<br />
Maximum sentences are reserved for the most severe offences.<ref> R v Pang Chun-Wai [1993] 1 HKC 233</ref> Sentences may be discounted. A discounted sentence is generally awarded to an early guilty plea. The fact that a defendant has challenged the evidence against them and lost does not preclude them from receiving a discount.<br />
<br />
===Penalties=== <br />
Penalties other than imprisonment are also available: <br />
====Bind-over orders==== <br />
A bind-over order is a promise by the defendant to keep the peace or be of good behaviour and not commit an offence for a specified period of time. If the offence is committed during the specified period then the accused or their surety must pay a sum of money or they may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment. <br />
<br />
====Community service orders==== <br />
A community service order may be made pursuant to the Community Service Orders Ordinance (Cap 378) if the accused is 14 years of age or older.<ref> HKSAR v Chow Chak Man and Another [1999] 2 HKC 659, CA.</ref> The community service order may be for a maximum of 240 hours of unpaid work over a period of 12 months. Community service orders may only be given with the consent of the accused.<br />
<br />
====Compensation orders====<br />
Section 98 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227)<ref> See the full text of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/FCE2EE462FE99FF0482575EE004FC664/$FILE/CAP_227_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that a magistrate may order an offender to pay compensation to the victim if the magistrate thinks that the paying of compensation is reasonable. Compensation orders are available for personal injury, and loss or damage to property. There is a compensation limit of $100,000. A compensation order is an addition to the main sentence and does not replace it.<br />
<br />
====Confiscation orders====<br />
Confiscation orders apply to drug trafficking and organised crime offences. The CFI and the District Court may order that the proceeds of criminal activity be confiscated.<br />
<br />
====Young defendants====<br />
Defendants who are male and aged between fourteen and twenty-five years may be sentenced to a detention centre order for a period of between three to twelve months in a centre which specialises in receiving young offenders. <br />
<br />
The Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap 225)<ref> See the full text of the Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap25) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D9FF47BCCCF15547482575EE004F6ABE/$FILE/CAP_225_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that young males aged between ten and fifteen years may be sentenced to attend reformatory school for a period of between one to three years. <br />
<br />
The Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 567)<ref> See the full text of the Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr0001/english/ord/ord011-01-e.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty-one years may be ordered to attend a rehabilitation centre in which they are to reside after studying, working or engaging in other approved activities<br />
<br />
The Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280)<ref> See the full text of the Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/6400D7B668DEA1DF482575EE00565EDB/$FILE/CAP_280_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty years may be detained in a training centre to undergo a period of training to reform the offender’s character.<br />
<br />
====Rehabilitation====<br />
Convicted persons may be sentenced to spend a period of between two to twelve months in a drug addiction treatment centre. Defendants must be assessed in order to determine their suitability for the cure and rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
====Disqualification of political rights====<br />
This is available in the NSL cases. <br />
<br />
===Appeals===<br />
There is no common law right to an appeal in the HKSAR to the effect that appeals must be made pursuant to an applicable Ordinance.<br />
<br />
A magistrate’s decision is appealed to the CFI. CFI and District Court decisions are appealed to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Final Appeal hears appeals as the final court of the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
====Conviction==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their conviction. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
====Sentence==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their sentence. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
Section 81A of the CPO provides that the Secretary for Justice may, with the leave of the Court of Appeal, appeal against a sentence for being wrong in principle, manifestly excessive or manifestly inadequate.<br />
<br />
==The National Security Law (NSL)==<br />
===Background=== <br />
Since the PRC’s resumption of the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, the HKSAR has been constitutionally obliged to enact a National Security Law (NSL) according to the Article 23 of the Basic Law (“BL 23”). <br />
<br />
Although a draft law was prepared after widespread consultation by the HKSAR Government in 2003, it was withdrawn in the face of political opposition and no such law has been locally enacted despite the passage of some 23 years <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at §10 </ref> . <br />
<br />
Especially since Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, the discontent among the public has been a challenge to the authority of the PRC. The Central Authorities decided to take such legislation into their own hands. The HKSAR government supported it and claimed that the HKSAR was facing an increasingly serious situation in relation to national security <ref> CE's Statement 22/05/2020 at ¶2 (https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202005/22/P2020052200488.htm) </ref> . On 30 June 2020, the NPCSC duly decided to add the NSL to the list of laws in Annex III of the Basic Law to be applied locally by way of promulgation by the HKSAR. From the time the NSL was enacted up to June 2023, 260 people have been arrested on national security law grounds.<br />
<br />
Some sections of the NSL are discussed below.<br />
<br />
===The Freedom of Speech=== <br />
Article 4 of the NSL expressly stipulates that human rights shall be respected and protected in safeguarding national security in the HKSAR. The rights and freedoms, including the freedoms of speech, of the press, of publication, of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration, which the residents of the HKSAR enjoy shall be protected in accordance with the law.<br />
<br />
===The Rule of Law===<br />
Article 5 affirms the principle of the rule of law, presumption of innocence and double jeopardy. <br />
<br />
===Public Promotion and Education===<br />
Articles 9 and 10 requires the HKSAR government to promote national security education in schools and with the public.<br />
<br />
===No Right of Access to Information and No Duty to Disclose===<br />
Article 14 stipulates that information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
===Exclusion of Judicial Review===<br />
Article 14 states that Decisions made by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be amenable to judicial review.<br />
<br />
===The Department for Safeguarding National Security and its Recruitment of Personnel outside Hong Kong===<br />
Article 16 allows the Department to recruit qualified professionals and technical personnel from outside the HKSAR to provide assistance in the performance of duties for safeguarding national security. <br />
<br />
The duties and functions of the department are set out in Article 17:<br />
(1) collecting and analysing intelligence and information concerning national security;<br />
(2) planning, coordinating and enforcing measures and operations for safeguarding national security;<br />
(3) investigating offences endangering national security;<br />
(4) conducting counter-interference investigation and national security review;<br />
(5) carrying out tasks of safeguarding national security assigned by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; and<br />
(6) performing other duties and functions necessary for the enforcement of this Law.<br />
<br />
===Offences===<br />
Offences listed in Chapter III include “Secession”; “Subversion”; “Terrorist Activities”; and “Collusion with a Foreign Country or with External Elements to Endanger National Security” by seriously disrupting the formulation and implementation of laws or policies, requesting a foreign country or an institution to impose sanctions, or provoking by unlawful means hatred among Hong Kong residents towards the Central People’s Government or the Government of the Region, which is likely to cause serious consequences. In ''HKSAR v. Ma Chun Man,'' <ref> [2021] 1 HKC 316 at §21 </ref> the court explained that Article 21 “Secession” does not require violence as an element, and found that the chanting of slogans could be contrary to a ‘peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression’ or a ‘mere publicity’ <ref> §27 </ref>. <br />
<br />
===Related Offences===<br />
*a) Failure to provide information<br />
**i) The offence is derived from Article 43 of the NSL, which empowers the Hong Kong Chief Executive to enact additional rules for applying measures when the Hong Kong Police Force is handling cases concerning offences endangering national security. Chow Hang-Tung and two other former leaders of the Hong Kong Allicance were convicted for failure to provide information to the police under the national secuirty law.<br />
<br />
*b)<br />
**i) Although the offence of sedition is not included in the NSL, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal ruled in December 2021 that Sedition under the Crimes Ordinance is an offence endangering National Security. A more stringent bail threshold may be applied to these crimes.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Political Rights===<br />
Article 35 disqualifies a convicted person from the right to vote and the right to stand for election. It also disqualifies such a person from holding any public office in the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
===Trial===<br />
Article 41 provides that the trial shall be conducted in an open court. However, when circumstances arise such as the trial involving State secrets or public order, all or part of the trial shall be closed to the media and the public but the judgment shall be delivered in an open court.<br />
<br />
===Bail===<br />
Article 42(2) rejects the presumption of bail: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Judges===<br />
Article 44 adds a restriction on judges that a person shall not be designated as a judge to adjudicate a case concerning offence endangering national security if he or she has made any statement or behaved in any manner endangering national security. A designated judge shall be removed from the designation list if he or she makes any statement or behaves in any manner endangering national security during the term of office.<br />
<br />
===Absence of Jury===<br />
Article 46 allows for the Secretary for Justice to remove the jury in the NSL cases on the grounds of, among others, the protection of State secrets, involvement of foreign factors in the case, and the protection of personal safety of jurors and their family members.<br />
<br />
===Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR===<br />
Chapter V lays down the responsibilities and operation of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR. The staff of the Office shall be jointly dispatched by relevant national security authorities under the Central People’s Government. Article 55 specifies that the Office itself shall exercise jurisdiction over a case concerning offence endangering national security under this Law, if the HKSAR is unable to effectively enforce this Law; or a major and imminent threat to national security has occurred.<br />
<br />
====Prosecution and Adjudication by the PRC====<br />
Article 56 confers the power of prosecution to the Supreme People’s Procuratorate and adjudication to the Supreme People’s Court in cases pursuant to Article of this Law.<br />
<br />
====Application of other National Laws of the PRC====<br />
Article 57 prescribe the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China and other related national laws to procedural matters, including those related to criminal investigation, examination and prosecution, trial, and execution of penalty, in respect of cases over which jurisdiction is exercised pursuant to Article 55 of this Law. <br />
<br />
===Legal Responsibilities of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR and its staff===<br />
Article 60 provides that the acts performed by them in accordance with this Law shall not be subject to the jurisdiction of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Hong_Kong&diff=381115Hong Kong2023-10-03T10:15:38Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|Hong Kong}}<br />
<br />
==Introduction== <br />
===Type of System=== <br />
The legal system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (the '''HKSAR''') differs from that of the majority of the People’s Republic of China (the ''PRC'') and is based on the common law. This is because Hong Kong was previously a British colony. On 1 July 1997 Hong Kong was handed over to the PRC.<br />
<br />
However, Article 57 of the National Security Law (''NSL'') allows the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and other related national laws to some cases. <ref> See the full text of the NSL at: https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20202448e/egn2020244872.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===The Basic Law and the Continuation of the Existing Legal System after 1 July 1997=== <br />
The constitutional framework of the HKSAR is provided by the Basic Law. It has been enacted by the National People’s Congress (the NPC) of the PRC under Article 31 of the Chinese Constitution.<br />
<br />
The Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the PRC on the Question of Hong Kong (the Joint Declaration) and the Basic Law guarantee the continuance of the pre-existing legal system after the PRC regained sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
The laws in force in Hong Kong before 1 July 1997 continued to apply in the HKSAR after that date except for those which contravened the Basic Law. Some legislation was adapted to ensure compliance with the Basic Law and to reflect Hong Kong’s status as a Special Administrative Region of the PRC.<br />
<br />
===The Courts=== <br />
The existing courts and tribunals were re-established on 1 July 1997 although some were renamed. The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was established to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal. All serving judges were reappointed by the HKSAR’s Chief Executive on 1 July 1997.<br />
<br />
Pursuant to the Basic Law, judges from other common law jurisdictions may be invited to sit on the Court of Final Appeal.<br />
<br />
The courts in Hong Kong are the following:<br />
*Magistrates’ Court<br />
*District Court<br />
*Court of First Instance (the CFI)<br />
*Court of Appeal<br />
*Court of Final Appeal<br />
<br />
The Supreme People’s Court of the PRC has the right of adjudication in cases under Article 56 of the NSL.<br />
<br />
===The Laws=== <br />
The laws in force in the HKSAR are:<br />
*(a) the Basic Law; <ref> See the full text of the Basic Law at: http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/text/en/basiclawtext/ </ref><br />
*(b) the 13 national laws listed in Annex III to the Basic Law as applied to the HKSAR by way of promulgation or legislation;<br />
*(c) the laws in force before 1 July 1997, including the common law, rules of equity, customary law and statutory law, other than those not adopted as laws of the HKSAR by the NPC Standing Committee because they contravene the Basic Law (these laws apply irrespective of whether the conduct occurred prior to 1 July 2007); and<br />
*(d) laws enacted by the HKSAR’s legislature.<br />
<br />
Only national laws relating to defence, foreign affairs or other matters outside the HKSAR’s autonomy may be added to Annex III to the Basic Law. <br />
<br />
All legislation in force in the HKSAR is bilingual. The Chinese and English language versions are equally authentic. All legislation is published in a hard-copy loose-leaf edition and is also available at www.legislation.gov.hk. Preparations are now under way for the establishment of an electronic legislation database with legal status pursuant to the Legislation Publication Ordinance of 2011.<br />
<br />
=== The legal aid situation in Hong Kong === <br />
====Publicly funded legal aid ====<br />
Publicly funded legal aid services are provided through the Legal Aid Department and the Duty Lawyer Service, in accordance with the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91)<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid Ordinance (Cap 91) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/07BCC0B0FE1EC8A1482575EE0037F553/$FILE/CAP_91_e_b5.pdf </ref> and the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) (the ''Legal Aid Rules'').<ref> See the full text of the Legal Aid in Criminal Cases Rules (Cap 221D) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D2405B17B91E99B1482575EE004F1B6D/$FILE/CAP_221D_e_b5.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Eligible applicants receive legal aid through the provision of the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, of a barrister. The Legal Aid Department provides legal representation to eligible applicants in criminal and some civil proceedings. <ref> See the website of the Legal Aid Department at www.lad.gov.hk </ref><br />
<br />
Legal aid is available for cases in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal and the Court of Final Appeal. It is also available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates' Courts.<br />
Any person who is a party to eligible court proceedings may apply for legal aid. Legal aid will be granted if the applicant is able to satisfy the statutory criteria as to financial eligibility and the merits for taking or defending the legal proceedings.<br />
<br />
Where a legal aid certificate is granted, the Director of Legal Aid (the '''Director''') may act for the aided person through lawyers employed in the Legal Aid Department. If the Director does not act for the aided person, he or the aided person may select a solicitor or counsel to act. The Director maintains separate panels of counsel and solicitors who are willing to investigate, report and give opinions on applications for legal aid and to act for aided persons. Aided persons may only select lawyers who are members of one of those panels.<ref> See section 13(3) of Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
==== Bar Free Legal Services Scheme ====<br />
Bar Free Legal Services Scheme only offers to the applicants whose applications to the Legal Aid Department have formally been rejected. Barristers who have volunteered to help the BFLSS are placed on a panel. The panel comprises barristers with a range of experience and specialisations. Each of them has offered their services free of charge for 3 days or 20 hours each year. No barrister is obliged to take on a particular case under the BFLSS. Barristers on the Panel offer their services free of charge, it may not always be possible for the BFLSS to assist. <ref> See Bar Free Legal Services Scheme https://www.hkba.org/content/bar-free-legal-services-scheme </ref><br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme covers some civil proceedings in the District Court, the CFI, the Court of Appeal, the Court of Final Appeal, certain coroner’s inquests and the Mental Health Review Tribunal. It does not cover civil cases such as probate cases and disputes between shareholders or business partners.<br />
<br />
In order to successfully apply for legal aid through the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme, an applicant must pass the merits test and the means test. The means test is based on financial resources and in order to be eligible an applicant’s financial resources must not exceed the financial eligibility limit. The Director may waive the upper financial eligibility limit in meritorious cases involving a breach of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (the '''BORO''')<ref> See the full text of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/AE5E078A7CF8E845482575EE007916D8/$FILE/CAP_383_e_b5.pdf </ref> or an inconsistency with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the '''ICCPR''').<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights at http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b3aa0.pdf </ref> <br />
<br />
Applicants must satisfy a merits test by demonstrating that there are reasonable grounds for taking or defending proceedings.<br />
<br />
====Civil Cases - The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme ==== <br />
The Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme provides legal assistance to persons whose financial resources exceed the upper limit allowed under the Ordinary Legal Aid Scheme but whose resources are nevertheless below a certain higher eligibility limit. <br />
<br />
Legal aid is available under the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme for claims for example involving personal injury or death, or medical, dental and legal professional negligence if the claim is likely to exceed a certain threshold. It also covers any claim under the Employees’ Compensation Ordinance and representation for employees in any appeal against an award made by the Labour Tribunal. <br />
<br />
Applicants for the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme are required to pass a means test (which has a higher financial threshold) and the merits test by demonstrating reasonable grounds for taking proceedings. It is not available to people who are defending proceedings, other than defence of counterclaims.<ref> See Part 1 of Schedule 3 to Cap 91</ref><br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, the yearly quota of civil cases overall possibly handled by individual lawyers will be decreased. The quota for barristers will decrease from 20 cases yearly to 15 cases yearly (25% decrease). The quota for solicitors will decrease from 35 cases yearly to 30 cases yearly (15% decrease). <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref><br />
<br />
====Criminal Legal Aid ==== <br />
Criminal legal aid provides the services of a solicitor and, if necessary, a barrister, to represent an accused person. It is available for committal proceedings in the Magistrates’ Court, cases tried in the District Court or CFI, and for all criminal appeals.<br />
<br />
Legal aid is not available in the Magistrates’ Court for cases other than committal proceedings. Assistance might nevertheless be provided in the Magistrates’ Court by the Duty Lawyer Scheme (discussed below).<br />
<br />
Applicants for criminal legal aid through the Legal Aid Department are required to pass: <br />
*(a) a means test (although if an applicant’s financial resources exceed the financial eligibility limit, the Director may waive the upper limit if satisfied that it is in the interests of justice to do so and subject to payment by the applicant of a contribution on higher rates calculated in accordance with the applicant’s financial resources); and <br />
*(b) a merits test (for trials in the District Court and the CFI, legal aid will be granted if it is desirable in the interests of justice to do so; for appeal cases, legal aid will be granted if there are valid grounds for appeal and it is in the interests of justice to do so).<br />
<br />
From the end of 2021, legal aid applicants will have to accept the lawyers assigned by the Department of Legal Aid unless there are “exceptional circumstances” (for example the nominated lawyers have already represented the representatives in lower courts), and aid recipients will no longer be able to choose their own lawyers, according to a consultation paper submitted to the legislature last week. <ref> Improvements of the Legal Aid System https://www.news.gov.hk/chi/2021/10/20211026/20211026_202115_602.html </ref> <ref> ILegal aid reform: Critics fear right to choose lawyer will be undermined but Hong Kong gov’t advisor says plan will be ‘fairer’ https://hongkongfp.com/2021/10/25/legal-aid-reform-critics-fear-right-to-choose-lawyer-will-be-undermined-but-hong-kong-govt-advisor-says-plan-will-be-fairer/ </ref><br />
<br />
====Duty Lawyer Service==== <br />
The Duty Lawyer Service operates the Duty Lawyer Scheme and the Free Legal Advice Scheme.<br />
<ref> See Duty Lawyer Service website at http://www.dutylawyer.org.hk/en/free/free.asp </ref><br />
The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation by qualified lawyers in private practice to eligible defendants appearing in all Magistrates’ Courts, Juvenile Courts and Coroners Courts. Legal aid is not available in Magistrates' Courts except for committal proceedings. The Duty Lawyer Scheme provides legal representation to eligible defendants appearing in Magistrates Courts.<br />
<br />
The Free Legal Advice Scheme provides preliminary legal advice to members of the public. The Scheme will not offer any follow up service or representation to applicants. There is no means test and the service is free of charge. Lawyers participate in the scheme on a voluntary basis. <br />
<br />
===Number of lawyers (criminal/civil) === <br />
Law is practised in the HKSAR by both solicitors and barristers.<br />
<br />
In total, there are more than 12,000 practising solicitors and barristers. At the end of May 2022, 939 local solicitor firms and 83 foreign law firms were operating in Hong Kong, including more than half of the Global 100 law firms.<br />
<br />
Both professions are independently governed by professional regulatory bodies in Hong Kong. The Law Society of Hong Kong and the Bar Association of Hong Kong govern the professions of solicitors and barristers respectively.<br />
<br />
==Sources of a defendant's rights== <br />
===National Sources of Defendant's rights=== <br />
Chapter III of the Basic Law prescribes fundamental rights and freedoms in the HKSAR. The BORO also gives domestic effect to the provisions of the ICCPR as applied to the HKSAR. There is no definition of a resident for the purposes of the rights. The scope of each right varies; some are applicable to only "permanent residents" who have a right of abode, whilst other rights apply to everyone. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law sets out fundamental rights in Articles 24 to 42. These include equality before the law and freedom of speech.<ref> Article 27, Basic Law. </ref> <br />
<br />
===International Sources of a defendant's rights=== <br />
Under the Basic Law, multilateral treaties can apply to the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
Article 39 of the Basic Law provides that the provisions of the ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the ICESCR)<ref> See the full text of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at http://www.cmab.gov.hk/doc/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/icescr.doc </ref> as applied to the HKSAR shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the HKSAR. The ICESCR has not incorporated into local legislation so it is not enforceable. <ref> Ubamaka [2012] HKCFA 87 at §4 https://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UBAMAKA-EDWARD-WILSON-v.-SECRETARY-FOR-SECURITY-AND-ANOTHER.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Articles 4 and 5 of the BORO provide that the freedom of the person is inviolable. No resident may be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful arrest, detention or imprisonment. Arbitrary or unlawful search of the body of any resident or deprivation or restriction of the freedom of the person is prohibited. Article 28 of the Basic Law prohibits torture of any resident or arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of the life of any resident. <br />
<br />
== Police Procedures == <br />
=== Police Questioning === <br />
The Hong Kong Police Force has issued a guidance note to arrested persons in relation to arrest and detention.<ref> See http://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/pol/en/Pol-1128.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
Section 54 of the Police Force Ordinance (the '''PFO''')<ref> See the full text of the Police Force Ordinance at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/7E4D875F6BBDF825482575EE0050597B/$FILE/CAP_232_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that police officers have the power to stop an individual who is acting in a suspicious manner, or an individual reasonably suspected to have committed, be about to commit or be intending to commit any offence. Police may demand that the individual produce identification and may detain the individual for a reasonable period while a police officer enquires about whether or not they have committed an offence. For individuals acting in a suspicious manner, police officers may search the person for anything that may present a danger to the police office or detain them for a reasonably required period where considered necessary. For an individual reasonably suspected of having committed, being about to, or intending to commit any offence, police may search them for anything of value to the investigation and detain them for a period considered reasonable. <br />
<br />
A suspect may not be compelled to answer any questions as suspects enjoy the right to silence.<ref> Rice v Connolly [1996] 3 WLR 17.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Arrest, Search and Seizure Laws === <br />
==== Arrest ==== <br />
'''(a) Police Arrest'''<br />
Subsections 50(1), 50(1A) and 50(1B) of the PFO provide broad powers of arrest where a police officer has a reasonable belief that a person will be charged or a reasonable suspicion of a person’s guilt of any offence:<br />
*(i)with a sentence fixed by law, such as a mandatory sentence; <br />
*(ii)for which a person on first conviction could be sentenced to imprisonment; <br />
*(iii)where the service of a summons would be impracticable; or<br />
*(iv)if the person is liable for deportation.<br />
Under section 50(1) of the PFO, an officer must be able to point to circumstances or events which created or caused the reasonable suspicion that an offence had been or was going to be committed. A reasonable suspicion is more than a mere possibility of guilt but it is not necessary to show a prima facie case that the arrested person is guilty. The test is an objective test. <ref> R v Cheung Wai-wan and Wan Sze-shing v. A-G [1980] HKLR 550.</ref><br />
<br />
'''(b) Citizen's Powers of Arrest''' <br />
Sections 101 and 101A of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (the CPO) provide citizens with the power to arrest a person they reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence for which:<br />
*(i) the sentence is fixed by law; or <br />
*(ii) a person may be sentenced to imprisonment of more than 12 months. <br />
<br />
There is also a common law citizen's power to arrest for breach of the peace. <br />
<br />
'''(c) General principles of Arrest by police officer''' <br />
At the time of arrest the person should be informed of the reason for the arrest. This is required under both the common law<ref> Christie v Leachinsky [1947] AC 573, HL </ref> and Article 5(2) of the BORO. The circumstances in which it is not necessary to notify a person of the reason for their arrest are generally limited to situations when: <br />
*(i) giving the reason might make the arrest more difficult to effect;<ref> R v Ku Kat-sui [1989] 2 HKC 526, HC. </ref><br />
*(ii) the arrested person is resisting arrest to the effect of making it impracticable to give the reason;<ref> HKSAR v Ip Kenneth [2006] 2 HKLRD 433. </ref> or <br />
*(iii) the arrested person is already aware of the reason for the arrest.<ref>Ibid</ref><br />
<br />
Physical force, appropriate conduct or words must be used to make it clear that an arrest is occurring. It must be made clear to the arrested person that he is not free to go.<ref> Shaabin Bin Hussein v Chong Fook-kam [1970] AC 942, PC. </ref> Any person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of crime or in effecting or assisting in the lawful arrest of offenders or suspected offenders or of persons unlawfully at large.<ref> See section 101A(1) of Cap 221.</ref><br />
<br />
Section 50(2) of the PFO provides that an officer may use all means necessary to effect the arrest if the suspect forcibly resists or attempts to evade it.<br />
<br />
Section 40(5) of the PFO provides that police have the right to search the arrested person or the premises in which the person was arrested if a lawful arrest is made. They also have the right to take items found in any such search if the arresting officer reasonably expects those items to be of value in the investigation.<br />
<br />
==== Search and seizure ==== <br />
Premises in the HKSAR may be searched with or without a warrant. Warrants may be issued under section 50(7) of the PFO by a magistrate. These allow police to enter, search for and seize property. There must be reasonable grounds to suspect that an item of value to an investigation may be located within premises in order for a warrant to be issued. <br />
<br />
There are both common law and statutory authorities giving police powers to search premises without a warrant. The common law power allows police to search the area where an individual was arrested and to seize any appropriate item. This power should only be exercised when it is reasonably necessary and where it is reasonably impractical to obtain a search warrant. Sections 50(3), (4), (5) and (6) of the PFO provide police with further powers of search in order to make an arrest or search for items which are of value to the investigation.<br />
<br />
Section 10C of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) (the ICAC Ordinance)<ref> See the full text of the Independent Commission Against Corruption Ordinance (Cap 204) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurAllEngDoc/A3E9ED78744D8631482575EE004CB37D/$FILE/CAP_204_e_b5.pdf </ref> allows officers of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (the ICAC) to search the premises where an individual is arrested whom they reasonably suspect is guilty of an offence under the ICAC Ordinance.<br />
<br />
===Line-ups (identification parades) and other identification procedures=== <br />
There are no statutory rules regarding the conduct of identification parades in the HKSAR. There are nevertheless official police procedures which are set out in the Police Force Procedures Manual. <br />
<br />
An identification parade is generally composed of a suspect and eight actors of similar appearance. It is organised and conducted by a senior police officer not involved in the investigation of the case. There must be no suggestion to witnesses regarding which person is the suspect. The suspect’s legal advisor can be present.<br />
<br />
Confrontation identification, group identification or dock identification might be applicable if the accused refuses or is otherwise unable to participate in an identification parade. Confrontation identification involves the identification of a suspect immediately after an offence has been committed. Group identification involves the identification of a suspect from a group between apprehension and trial. Dock identification involves the identification of a suspect at trial.<br />
<br />
===Interrogation=== <br />
The process of interrogation in the HKSAR is governed by the 1992 Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Making of Statements (the Rules). The Rules provide that statements must be voluntary and that persons in authority must not use threats, promises or deception. A failure to comply with the Rules may result in the evidence being inadmissible. Judges are entitled to admit evidence at their discretion which the Rules would classify as inadmissible when necessary to ensure a fair trial for the accused but rarely need to exercise such discretion in practice.<br />
<br />
Rule 1 of the Rules provides that during the initial investigation stage police officers are entitled to question any person who they think may have useful information even if they are not a suspect. <br />
<br />
Rule 2 of the Rules provides that police officers must caution the individual before putting more questions to them which relate to the offence once there is evidence that would afford reasonable grounds for suspecting that the individual has committed an offence. If the individual wishes to continue talking after receiving the caution then a contemporaneous record of proceedings must be kept. As far as practicable this record must record the time and place of the questioning and list the persons present.<br />
<br />
Rule 3(a) of the Rules provides a format for cautioning the suspect if they are charged or informed that they may be prosecuted for an offence. The caution is in the following form: <br />
:Do you wish to say anything? You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say will be taken down in writing and may be given in evidence.<br />
<br />
A contemporaneous record must be kept of this questioning. <br />
<br />
Rule 6(a) of the Rules provides that wherever possible all interviews should be conducted in the mother tongue of the individual being questioned.<br />
<br />
Direction 8(1) of the Rules provides that individuals in custody or present with the police and under investigation should be allowed to speak to their friends or family by telephone and consult and communicate privately with their lawyer in writing or on the telephone provided that it will not cause an unreasonable delay or hindrance to the investigation or the administration of justice. <br />
<br />
==Police Powers== <br />
=== Stopping and Detaining a suspect=== <br />
Article 5 of the BORO and Article 28 of the Basic Law require restraint of a person to be legally authorised. <br />
<br />
Section 54 of the PFO provides that an officer may stop and detain for a reasonable period and search as appropriate:<br />
*(a) any person acting in a suspicious manner; or <br />
*(b) anyone whom the police reasonably suspect of having committed or being about to commit or intending to commit an offence.<br />
<br />
There is no power of arrest under section 54 of the PFO. The general powers of arrest are set out in section 50(1) of the PFO. An arrest must conform to these requirements.<br />
<br />
===Questioning a suspect pre-arrest=== <br />
The right to silence exists both before and after arrest and it is inappropriate to use an individual’s silence against them in any way.<ref> Lee Fuk Hing v HKSAR (2004) 7 HKCFAR 600.</ref> However, sections 3 and 4 of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455)<ref> See the full text of the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance (Cap 455) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/4D1FF665EFF4E8B0482575EF0009EBA1/$FILE/CAP_455_e_b5.pdf </ref> override this right: a CFI judge may make an order to compel individuals to answer questions relating to the investigation of organised crime. In addition, section 14 of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201)<ref> See the full text of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (Cap 201) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/CurEngOrd/660A25EA15B8C9D6482575EE004C5BF1/$FILE/CAP_201_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that ICAC may request a judge in a bribe investigation to order an individual to provide a statement explaining the source of money or property. <br />
<br />
== Pre Trial Procedures == <br />
A number of principles of defence, including those provided by the Basic Law, have been given effect through the enactment of the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Cap 221) (the CPO) and the Legal Aid Rules. Other principles have been given effect by way of the common law. These principles are not distinct. For example, Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that "everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law". This principle is given practical effect in the CPO. <br />
<br />
The Basic Law guarantees principles of defence including:<br />
*(a) equality before the courts (Article 10);<br />
*(b) the right to a fair and public trial by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law (Article 10);<br />
*(c) the right to trial by jury in the most serious cases;<br />
*(d) the presumption of innocence (Article 11);<br />
*(e) the burden of proof lies with the prosecution;<br />
*(f) the standard of proof is ‘beyond reasonable doubt’;<br />
*(g) the right to prompt and detailed information as to the nature and cause of the charge;<br />
*(h) adequate time for preparation of the defence case;<br />
*(i) the right not to be tried or punished for an offence for which a suspect has already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law (Article 11);<br />
*(j) the right to legal representation;<br />
*(k) the right to be tried without undue delay;<br />
*(l) the right to legal assistance;<br />
*(m) the right to call witnesses and secure their presence in court;<br />
*(n) the right to cross-examine prosecution witnesses;<br />
*(o) the right to have the free service of an interpreter;<br />
*(p) the right to remain silent in court;<br />
*(q) the right to appeal either or both of conviction and sentence; and<br />
*(r) the limited right to bail pending trial or appeal depending on the gravity of the offence and surrounding circumstances.<br />
the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
*(s) the right to be tried in one's presence;<br />
<br />
==Rights of the accused at all times== <br />
===Double jeopardy===<br />
Article 11(6) of the BORO provides that no one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which they have already been convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Presumption of innocence=== <br />
Article 11(1) of the BORO provides for the presumption of innocence. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. <br />
<br />
=== Right against self-incrimination=== <br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that the defendant has the right no to be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt. <br />
<br />
=== Witnesses === <br />
The prosecution and the defendant may use witness evidence to support their case. Article 11(2)(e) of the BORO provides the defendant with the right to examine or have examined witnesses brought against them and to have witnesses present on their behalf. <br />
<br />
===Rights during trial=== <br />
Article 11(2) (f) of the BORO provides that accused persons have the right to an interpreter during the trial if they cannot speak or understand the language used in court. <br />
<br />
===Right to an appeal=== <br />
Article 11(4) of the BORO provides that everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to have their conviction and sentence reviewed by a higher tribunal according to law (meaning an appellate court or tribunal). <br />
<br />
===Ex-post facto punishment (retrospective punishment)=== <br />
Article 12 of the BORO provides that there is no retrospective punishment in the HKSAR for acts or omissions which did not constitute a criminal offence at the time committed. Heavier penalties cannot be imposed other than those applicable at the time the offence was committed. <br />
<br />
==Fair trial Rights == <br />
Article 87 of the Basic Law provides that all defendants are guaranteed the right to a fair trial without delay and that they shall be presumed innocent until convicted. <br />
<br />
===Right to counsel=== <br />
Article 11(2)(d) of the Basic Law provides that all persons in the HKSAR have the right to seek legal assistance. All individuals have the right to defend themselves through legal assistance of their own choosing. Individuals have the right to legal assistance which should be without payment if they do not have sufficient means to pay. Further, Article 11(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused persons must be given adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence and communicate with their chosen counsel. <br />
<br />
===Right to habeas corpus===<br />
Article 22A of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4)<ref> See the full text of the High Court Ordinance (Cap 4) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165d2fee3fa94825755e0033e532/E3C89D7AC07002EE482575EE002A70D9/$FILE/CAP_4_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that an application for a habeas corpus writ may be made to the CFI alleging that an applicant is being unlawfully detained and requesting the issuing of a writ of habeas corpus. The detained individual, or any other person on their behalf can make an application. As soon as practicable after receiving the application the CFI must inquire into the allegation. All proceedings must be conducted in open court. If satisfied that the application has substance the CFI can order the issue of a writ of habeas corpus directing that the person with custody over the applicant bring the applicant before the Court at a specified date to certify the grounds for detention or bring the person with custody over the applicant to Court to justify the lawfulness of the detention. If satisfied that the application has no substance the CFI may dismiss it.<br />
<br />
===Right to notice of charges===<br />
Article 11(2)(a) of the BORO provides that all individuals should be informed of the nature and cause of the charges against them and in detail in a language they can understand. <br />
<br />
===Right to non-self incrimination===<br />
Article 11(2)(g) of the BORO provides that individuals cannot be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt.<br />
<br />
===Right to a fair and speedy trial===<br />
Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge must promptly be brought before a judge or legal officer. Individuals are entitled to a trial within a reasonable time or to release from detention. Further, Article 5(4) of the BORO provides that individuals deprived of their liberty are entitled to initiate proceedings before a court to decide the lawfulness of their detention. Article 5(5) of the BORO provides that individuals who are unlawfully arrested or detained have enforceable rights to compensation. Article 11(2)(c) of the BORO provides further rights to be tried without undue delay.<br />
<br />
===Rights pre-trial===<br />
Article 6(2)(a) of the BORO provides that accused persons shall be segregated from convicted persons and subject to separate treatment, save in exceptional circumstances. Further, 6(2)(b) of the BORO provides that accused juveniles must be separated from adults and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication. Articles 6(3) and 11(3) of the BORO provide that the procedure for juveniles should take into account their age and the desirability of promoting their rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
===Right to an independent and impartial court ===<br />
Article 10 of the BORO provides that individuals have the right to be tried by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law and to a fair and public hearing. All persons are equal before the courts and tribunals. In some instances the public and press may be excluded from all or part of the trial. <br />
<br />
===Right to disclosure===<br />
Defendants have the right to receive relevant information from the prosecution regarding their cases even if the information may be injurious to the prosecution’s claim. The prosecution is required to inform the defendant of any discreditable behaviour of a prosecution witness that may affect their assessment as a witness. Information may be withheld from the defendant if considered prejudicial to the public interest. This duty of disclosure is both a statutory and common law duty. The statutory source of this duty is provided in Article 39 and 87 of the Basic Law and Article 11(2) of the BORO. The common law duty is derived from the defendant’s right to a fair trial which implies that a defendant should possess adequate knowledge of the prosecution’s case. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, under Article 14 of the National Security Law (NSL), information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
==Rights in prison==<br />
The General Rules for the Government of Prisons (the Prison Rules)<ref> See the full text of the General Rules for the Government of Prisons at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/C91C6D774F99548F482575EE0050CA96/$FILE/CAP_234A_e_b5.pdf </ref> outlines the general conditions of prisons in the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
===Conditions of confinement===<br />
Rule 54 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisoners have the right to petition the Chief Executive during the first year of their sentence and once every year thereafter unless the Superintendent in charge of the relevant prison considers that there is sufficient cause to justify additional petitions. The Prison Rules do not limit the scope of the subject matter in respect of which a prisoner may petition.<br />
<br />
===Medical care=== <br />
Rule 5 of the Prison Rules provides that all prisons are required to have a hospital or another designated place for the reception of sick prisoners. All prisoners undergo a physical examination on admission that is conducted as soon as possible after prisoners are admitted. Rule 14 of the Prison Rules provides that prisoners must be examined separately by a medical officer who will create a record on the state of their health. The physical examination should be conducted on the date of admission into prison or within 24 hours of admission. Prisoners may obtain medical treatment in prison or in one of the two custodial wards at the government hospital. Prisoners have access to dental care and specialist treatment if required. <br />
<br />
===Women’s rights=== <br />
Rules 6, 7 and 10 of the Prison Rules provide that female prisoners must be kept in premises entirely separate from male prisoners. Female premises must be controlled by female officers. Male officers may only enter female premises on duty and in the company of a female officer. Female prisoners should only be searched by female officers. <br />
Rule 21 of the Prison Rules contains further rights for female prisoners with children. The child of a female prisoner may be received into prison with its mother during the normal lactation period. The child can remain with the mother until a medical officer certifies that the child is in a condition fit to be removed. The medical officer will report to the Commissioner of prisons as to whether it is necessary or desirable for the child to remain in the prison once the child reaches nine months or is over that age. No child over the age of three years may remain in prison. <br />
<br />
==Court procedures== <br />
===Preliminary investigation and trial=== <br />
Police generally decide whether to charge a suspect. Section 52(1) of the PFO provides that a defendant must be brought before a magistrate within 48 hours and without unreasonable delay if charged. During this period lawyers should deal with the police officers in charge of the case. A magistrate has the responsibility to decide whether to issue bail or remand the defendant into custody. The matter is then sent to the prosecution’s office. The prosecution will decide to proceed with the same charge, amend the charge or withdraw the charge completely. When deciding whether to charge or not the prosecution must take into account the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice.<ref> See the full text of the Statement of Prosecution Policy and Practice at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/ajls/papers/aj0203cb2-sppp-e-scan.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
===Bail=== <br />
Bail means release of a person from detention based on an undertaking, with or without conditions, to surrender to custody as ordered by the court or directed by the police. There is a presumption of entitlement to bail. Article 5(3) of the BORO provides that<br />
<br />
:it shall not be the general rule that persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be subject to guarantees to appear for trial.<br />
<br />
However, Article 42(2) of the NSL rejects the presumption of for cases governed by the NSL: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
So far, the prosecution still cannot ask for review (by CA or CFA) of the CFI judge’s decision to release a Defendant on bail even under the National Security Law <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at § 6 https://legalref.judiciary.hk/lrs/common/search/search_result_detail_frame.jsp?DIS=133491&QS=%2B&TP=JU&ILAN=en </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
Section 52 of the PFO allows police to grant bail if the offence is not serious and there is no reason to detain the defendant. The individual will be charged and appear before a magistrate if police bail is not given. The defendant will be remanded into police custody or gaol custody. Any time on remand will count towards a subsequent custodial sentence.<br />
<br />
Two forms of bail are available to the defendant: <br />
*(a) Police bail<br />
The individual will generally be granted bail by the police in charge of the station after they are charged. If the charge is very serious bail may not be granted by the officer. Provided the charge is not yet laid, an individual may be released on cash bail or recognisance that they will return to the police station if required. <br />
*(b) Magistrates’ bail<br />
Police bail will expire once an individual is brought in front of a magistrate and magistrates’ bail will then apply. Magistrates’ bail is given generally and may include certain conditions. Bail may not be given if it is likely that the individual will interfere with witnesses, the offence is serious or there is a strong likelihood that the individual will abscond. Part 1A of the CPO contains the rules that relate to magistrates’ bail. If an individual is charged with murder or treason they will need to seek bail from a CFI judge.<br />
<br />
The presumption in favour of bail in Part 9D(1) of the CPO is “[subject] to this section and section 9G”. Part 9D(2) of the CPO states that the grant of bail may be subject to conditions. Part 9G(1) of CPO lists the possible basis for refusing bail. If such grounds are not positively made out, bail is granted. The rule embodies the presumption in favour of bail. <br />
<br />
For cases governed by the NSL, that presumption is excluded in the first instance by Section 42(2) of NSL. The starting-point is that no bail shall be granted unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the accused “will not continue to commit acts endangering national security”. Plainly, it introduces a considerably more stringent threshold requirement. Another point of distinction is that Section 42(2) of NSL does not refer to the risk of committing an offence but to a risk that the accused will “continue” to “commit acts endangering national security” if granted bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §53 </ref> .The judge, in answering the NSL 42(2) question, may decide that in all the circumstances including the factors listed in Section 9D(2) and 9G(2) CPO, and having duly considered possible bail conditions, he or she does not have sufficient grounds for believing that the defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security and thus refuse bail <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §57 & 58 </ref>. To conclude, Section 42(2) NSL imports a stringent threshold requirement for bail applications <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021 HKCFA 3 at §70 </ref> .<br />
<br />
It should be noted that in the NSL cases, the rules governing bail in general are subject to any specific changes effected by NSL 42(2) which are<br />
made to prevail by Section 62 of NSL.<br />
<br />
===Assessing the admissibility of evidence=== <br />
A voir dire will be held in the CFI if issues arise regarding the admissibility of evidence. This is a mini trial to determine the admissibility of evidence and is generally held in the absence of a jury. The preferred method for the Magistrates’ and District Court to assess the admissibility of evidence is the ‘alternative procedure’. In this method questions are determined within the trial rather than in a separate mini trial. This is possible as these courts do not involve a jury. This is mandatory where a so-called double-barrelled attack is made by the defence or the accused not only denies making the confession, but also asserts that the police mistreated him <ref> Thongjai & Anor v The Queen CACC608/1994 at line 13 of p.7 </ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Trial === <br />
Trials in the Magistrates’ Court take place in front of a magistrate. The magistrate is not under any obligation to provide reasons for their verdict but will often do so in practice. Magistrates are required to provide reasons when deciding an appeal case. Trials in District Court are before a single Judge. District Court judges must supply reasons within 21 days of delivering a judgment.<br />
<br />
Trials in the CFI will be conducted before a jury. NSL cases are the exception. Section 4 of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3)<ref> See the full text of the Jury Ordinance (Cap 3) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/9B7D35E42635E9EA482575EE002A5989/$FILE/CAP_3_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that jurors must be between the ages of 21 and 65 years, be a resident in the HKSAR, be of sound mind, not be affected by blindness, deafness or other disabilities affecting service, be of good character and have sufficient knowledge of the English language.<br />
<br />
Once the jury is empanelled the case begins with the prosecution explaining the offence and facts to the jury and identifying the witnesses. The prosecution will then call on the prosecution witnesses to give evidence and the witnesses may be cross-examined by the defence counsel. After the prosecution has pleaded their case the defence may make a “no case” submission. The judge or magistrate must direct the jury to acquit the defendant if the prosecution case, even taken at its highest, would not allow a jury to convict the defendant. If there is no ‘no-case’ submission, the defence counsel then presents their case. Following this, the both parties may make a closing submission. The judge will sum up the facts of the case and direct the jury who will deliberate their verdict. The jury will deliver their verdict and the judge will decide on sentencing appropriately.<br />
<br />
===Assessing=== <br />
All matters commence in the Magistrates’ Court. The prosecution sends the case to be heard in the appropriate court depending on the maximum sentence available for the crime - the Magistrates' Court needs to determine the correct court to hear the case. The Magistrates’ Court will hear the case if the maximum sentence is two years or less. If the maximum sentence is seven years or less the case will be heard in the District Court. Other cases will be heard in the CFI where there is no limit to the maximum penalty available.<br />
<br />
===Sentencing===<br />
Sentencing will take place after the offender has been convicted following the jury trial. There are statutory penalties for the majority of offences which consist of a term of imprisonment or a fine. Certain offences such as murder, manslaughter and common law conspiracy are common law offences. Murder has a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment. Sections 2 and 7 of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212)<ref> See the full text of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance (Cap 212) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/43CA4DC0171D9224482575EE004D5CE1/$FILE/CAP_212_e_b5.pdf </ref> provide that manslaughter has a discretionary life imprisonment penalty. Sentencing will take place by a judge in the court that is considered most appropriate.<br />
<br />
*(a) Crimes that have a maximum of two years imprisonment and a fine of $100,000 will generally be heard in the Magistrates’ Court.<br />
*(b) Crimes that have a maximum of seven years imprisonment and no fine limit will be heard in the District Court.<br />
*(c) Crimes that have a maximum sentencing above those listed will be heard in the CFI. <br />
<br />
Maximum sentences are reserved for the most severe offences.<ref> R v Pang Chun-Wai [1993] 1 HKC 233</ref> Sentences may be discounted. A discounted sentence is generally awarded to an early guilty plea. The fact that a defendant has challenged the evidence against them and lost does not preclude them from receiving a discount.<br />
<br />
===Penalties=== <br />
Penalties other than imprisonment are also available: <br />
====Bind-over orders==== <br />
A bind-over order is a promise by the defendant to keep the peace or be of good behaviour and not commit an offence for a specified period of time. If the offence is committed during the specified period then the accused or their surety must pay a sum of money or they may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment. <br />
<br />
====Community service orders==== <br />
A community service order may be made pursuant to the Community Service Orders Ordinance (Cap 378) if the accused is 14 years of age or older.<ref> HKSAR v Chow Chak Man and Another [1999] 2 HKC 659, CA.</ref> The community service order may be for a maximum of 240 hours of unpaid work over a period of 12 months. Community service orders may only be given with the consent of the accused.<br />
<br />
====Compensation orders====<br />
Section 98 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227)<ref> See the full text of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/4f0db701c6c25d4a4825755c00352e35/FCE2EE462FE99FF0482575EE004FC664/$FILE/CAP_227_e_b5.pdf </ref> provides that a magistrate may order an offender to pay compensation to the victim if the magistrate thinks that the paying of compensation is reasonable. Compensation orders are available for personal injury, and loss or damage to property. There is a compensation limit of $100,000. A compensation order is an addition to the main sentence and does not replace it.<br />
<br />
====Confiscation orders====<br />
Confiscation orders apply to drug trafficking and organised crime offences. The CFI and the District Court may order that the proceeds of criminal activity be confiscated.<br />
<br />
====Young defendants====<br />
Defendants who are male and aged between fourteen and twenty-five years may be sentenced to a detention centre order for a period of between three to twelve months in a centre which specialises in receiving young offenders. <br />
<br />
The Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap 225)<ref> See the full text of the Reformatory Schools Ordinance (Cap25) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/D9FF47BCCCF15547482575EE004F6ABE/$FILE/CAP_225_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that young males aged between ten and fifteen years may be sentenced to attend reformatory school for a period of between one to three years. <br />
<br />
The Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 567)<ref> See the full text of the Rehabilitation Centres Ordinance (Cap 227) at http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr0001/english/ord/ord011-01-e.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty-one years may be ordered to attend a rehabilitation centre in which they are to reside after studying, working or engaging in other approved activities<br />
<br />
The Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280)<ref> See the full text of the Training Centres Ordinance (Cap 280) at http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/6400D7B668DEA1DF482575EE00565EDB/$FILE/CAP_280_e_b5.pdf</ref> provides that defendants who are aged between fourteen and twenty years may be detained in a training centre to undergo a period of training to reform the offender’s character.<br />
<br />
====Rehabilitation====<br />
Convicted persons may be sentenced to spend a period of between two to twelve months in a drug addiction treatment centre. Defendants must be assessed in order to determine their suitability for the cure and rehabilitation. <br />
<br />
====Disqualification of political rights====<br />
This is available in the NSL cases. <br />
<br />
===Appeals===<br />
There is no common law right to an appeal in the HKSAR to the effect that appeals must be made pursuant to an applicable Ordinance.<br />
<br />
A magistrate’s decision is appealed to the CFI. CFI and District Court decisions are appealed to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Final Appeal hears appeals as the final court of the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
====Conviction==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their conviction. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
====Sentence==== <br />
Article 11 of the BORO provides that an offender may appeal against their sentence. The provisions of Part IV of the CPO give effect to that right. <br />
<br />
Section 81A of the CPO provides that the Secretary for Justice may, with the leave of the Court of Appeal, appeal against a sentence for being wrong in principle, manifestly excessive or manifestly inadequate.<br />
<br />
==The National Security Law (NSL)==<br />
===Background=== <br />
Since the PRC’s resumption of the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, the HKSAR has been constitutionally obliged to enact a National Security Law (NSL) according to the Article 23 of the Basic Law (“BL 23”). <br />
<br />
Although a draft law was prepared after widespread consultation by the HKSAR Government in 2003, it was withdrawn in the face of political opposition and no such law has been locally enacted despite the passage of some 23 years <ref> Lai Chee Ying [2021] HKCFA 3 at §10 </ref> . <br />
<br />
Especially since Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, the discontent among the public has been a challenge to the authority of the PRC. The Central Authorities decided to take such legislation into their own hands. The HKSAR government supported it and claimed that the HKSAR was facing an increasingly serious situation in relation to national security <ref> CE's Statement 22/05/2020 at ¶2 (https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202005/22/P2020052200488.htm) </ref> . On 30 June 2020, the NPCSC duly decided to add the NSL to the list of laws in Annex III of the Basic Law to be applied locally by way of promulgation by the HKSAR. From the time the NSL was enacted up to June 2023, 260 people have been arrested on national security law grounds.<br />
<br />
Some sections of the NSL are discussed below.<br />
<br />
===The Freedom of Speech=== <br />
Article 4 of the NSL expressly stipulates that human rights shall be respected and protected in safeguarding national security in the HKSAR. The rights and freedoms, including the freedoms of speech, of the press, of publication, of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration, which the residents of the HKSAR enjoy shall be protected in accordance with the law.<br />
<br />
===The Rule of Law===<br />
Article 5 affirms the principle of the rule of law, presumption of innocence and double jeopardy. <br />
<br />
===Public Promotion and Education===<br />
Articles 9 and 10 requires the HKSAR government to promote national security education in schools and with the public.<br />
<br />
===No Right of Access to Information and No Duty to Disclose===<br />
Article 14 stipulates that information relating to the work of the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be subject to disclosure.<br />
<br />
===Exclusion of Judicial Review===<br />
Article 14 states that Decisions made by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the HKSAR shall not be amenable to judicial review.<br />
<br />
===The Department for Safeguarding National Security and its Recruitment of Personnel outside Hong Kong===<br />
Article 16 allows the Department to recruit qualified professionals and technical personnel from outside the HKSAR to provide assistance in the performance of duties for safeguarding national security. <br />
<br />
The duties and functions of the department are set out in Article 17:<br />
(1) collecting and analysing intelligence and information concerning national security;<br />
(2) planning, coordinating and enforcing measures and operations for safeguarding national security;<br />
(3) investigating offences endangering national security;<br />
(4) conducting counter-interference investigation and national security review;<br />
(5) carrying out tasks of safeguarding national security assigned by the Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; and<br />
(6) performing other duties and functions necessary for the enforcement of this Law.<br />
<br />
===Offences===<br />
Offences listed in Chapter III include “Secession”; “Subversion”; “Terrorist Activities”; and “Collusion with a Foreign Country or with External Elements to Endanger National Security” by seriously disrupting the formulation and implementation of laws or policies, requesting a foreign country or an institution to impose sanctions, or provoking by unlawful means hatred among Hong Kong residents towards the Central People’s Government or the Government of the Region, which is likely to cause serious consequences. In ''HKSAR v. Ma Chun Man,'' <ref> [2021] 1 HKC 316 at §21 </ref> the court explained that Article 21 “Secession” does not require violence as an element, and found that the chanting of slogans could be contrary to a ‘peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression’ or a ‘mere publicity’ <ref> §27 </ref>. <br />
<br />
===Related Offences===<br />
*a) Failure to provide information<br />
**i) The offence is derived from Article 43 of the NSL, which empowers the Hong Kong Chief Executive to enact additional rules for applying measures when the Hong Kong Police Force is handling cases concerning offences endangering national security. Chow Hang-Tung and two other former leaders of the Hong Kong Allicance were convicted for failure to provide information to the police under the national secuirty law.<br />
<br />
*b)<br />
**i) Although the offence of sedition is not included in the NSL, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal ruled in December 2021 that Sedition under the Crimes Ordinance is an offence endangering National Security. A more stringent bail threshold may be applied to these crimes.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Political Rights===<br />
Article 35 disqualifies a convicted person from the right to vote and the right to stand for election. It also disqualifies such a person from holding any public office in the HKSAR.<br />
<br />
===Trial===<br />
Article 41 provides that the trial shall be conducted in an open court. However, when circumstances arise such as the trial involving State secrets or public order, all or part of the trial shall be closed to the media and the public but the judgment shall be delivered in an open court.<br />
<br />
===Bail===<br />
Article 42(2) rejects the presumption of bail: “No bail shall be granted to a criminal suspect or defendant unless the judge has sufficient grounds for believing that the criminal suspect or defendant will not continue to commit acts endangering national security.”<br />
<br />
===Disqualification of Judges===<br />
Article 44 adds a restriction on judges that a person shall not be designated as a judge to adjudicate a case concerning offence endangering national security if he or she has made any statement or behaved in any manner endangering national security. A designated judge shall be removed from the designation list if he or she makes any statement or behaves in any manner endangering national security during the term of office.<br />
<br />
===Absence of Jury===<br />
Article 46 allows for the Secretary for Justice to remove the jury in the NSL cases on the grounds of, among others, the protection of State secrets, involvement of foreign factors in the case, and the protection of personal safety of jurors and their family members.<br />
<br />
===Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR===<br />
Chapter V lays down the responsibilities and operation of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR. The staff of the Office shall be jointly dispatched by relevant national security authorities under the Central People’s Government. Article 55 specifies that the Office itself shall exercise jurisdiction over a case concerning offence endangering national security under this Law, if the HKSAR is unable to effectively enforce this Law; or a major and imminent threat to national security has occurred.<br />
<br />
====Prosecution and Adjudication by the PRC====<br />
Article 56 confers the power of prosecution to the Supreme People’s Procuratorate and adjudication to the Supreme People’s Court in cases pursuant to Article of this Law.<br />
<br />
====Application of other National Laws of the PRC====<br />
Article 57 prescribe the application of the Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China and other related national laws to procedural matters, including those related to criminal investigation, examination and prosecution, trial, and execution of penalty, in respect of cases over which jurisdiction is exercised pursuant to Article 55 of this Law. <br />
<br />
===Legal Responsibilities of the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the Central People’s Government in the HKSAR and its staff===<br />
Article 60 provides that the acts performed by them in accordance with this Law shall not be subject to the jurisdiction of the HKSAR. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381114China/zh2023-09-20T14:00:00Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
<br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/7c7e81f43957c58bbdfb.html 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/39c1b78830b970eabdfb.html?keyword=%E5%88%91%E6%B3%95&way=listView 刑法,2020]<br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/5a06769be1274052bdfb.html?keyword=%E5%88%91%E4%BA%8B%E8%AF%89%E8%AE%BC%E6%B3%95&way=listView 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/32d5ea7fed411806bdfb.html 中华人民共和国律师法(2017修正)]<br />
* [https://www.spp.gov.cn/spp/flfg/sfjs/201212/t20121228_52202.shtml 关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定]<br />
* [https://www.spp.gov.cn/spp/flfg/sfjs/201212/t20121228_52203.shtml 关于办理刑事案件排除非法证据若干问题的规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Chinese-English_Legal_Lexicon 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律培训</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
<br />
法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">现状一览</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">参考文献</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381113China/zh2023-09-20T13:59:45Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/7c7e81f43957c58bbdfb.html 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/39c1b78830b970eabdfb.html?keyword=%E5%88%91%E6%B3%95&way=listView 刑法,2020]<br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/5a06769be1274052bdfb.html?keyword=%E5%88%91%E4%BA%8B%E8%AF%89%E8%AE%BC%E6%B3%95&way=listView 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/32d5ea7fed411806bdfb.html 中华人民共和国律师法(2017修正)]<br />
* [https://www.spp.gov.cn/spp/flfg/sfjs/201212/t20121228_52202.shtml 关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定]<br />
* [https://www.spp.gov.cn/spp/flfg/sfjs/201212/t20121228_52203.shtml 关于办理刑事案件排除非法证据若干问题的规定]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Chinese-English_Legal_Lexicon 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律培训</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">现状一览</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">参考文献</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381112China/zh2023-09-20T13:20:22Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Chinese-English_Legal_Lexicon 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律培训</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">现状一览</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">参考文献</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381111China/zh2023-09-18T15:33:55Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Chinese-English_Legal_Lexicon 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律培训</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
<br />
法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
<br />
2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">现状一览</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">参考文献</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381110China/zh2023-09-18T15:32:56Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Chinese-English_Legal_Lexicon 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">现状一览</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">参考文献</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381109China/zh2023-09-18T15:31:47Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
<br />
法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
<br />
2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">现状一览</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">参考文献</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381108China/zh2023-09-18T15:30:27Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">文献出处</h2><br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381107China/zh2023-09-18T15:26:29Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China 宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381106China/zh2023-09-18T15:25:36Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381105China/zh2023-09-18T15:24:54Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers IBJ中国辩护律师培训课程]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
<br />
2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381104China/zh2023-09-18T15:23:29Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf 未成年人手册 (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf 少年儿童权利手册 (2018)]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381103China/zh2023-09-18T15:22:11Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf 保护未决羁押中的残障人权利工作指南]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf 审前辩护手册 ]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf 值班律师培训手册 I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf 值班律师培训手册 II]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381102China/zh2023-09-18T15:18:33Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
<br />
刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
<br />
一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
<br />
所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
<br />
调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
<br />
中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
<br />
律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
<br />
=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
<br />
2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
<br />
== 审判程序 ==<br />
<br />
在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
<br />
从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
<br />
在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381101China/zh2023-09-18T15:17:44Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]中国宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381100China/zh2023-09-18T15:17:18Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China] 中国宪法]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ 刑法,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ 刑事诉讼法,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
<br />
== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
<br />
刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
<br />
一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
<br />
所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
<br />
调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
<br />
中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
<br />
律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
<br />
=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
<br />
2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
<br />
== 审判程序 ==<br />
<br />
在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
<br />
从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
<br />
在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381099China2023-09-13T14:17:10Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5235/mod_resource/content/1/Guidelines%20for%20Protecting%20Defendants%20with%20Disabilities.pdf Guidelines for Protecting Defendants with Disabilities]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/5237/mod_resource/content/1/Pretrial%20Advocacy%20Manual.pdf Pretrial Advocacy Manual]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7784/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%202018.pdf Duty Lawyer Training Manual I]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/7785/mod_resource/content/1/%E5%80%BC%E7%8F%AD%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E5%9F%B9%E8%AE%AD%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%EF%BC%892022.pdf Duty Lawyer Training Manual II]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
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Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
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China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
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China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
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'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
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Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
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In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China_-_Law_on_Lawyers_and_Legal_Representation&diff=381098China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation2023-09-13T13:35:25Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>Promulgated by the 19th meeting of the Eighth National People's Congress Standing Committee on May 15, 1996 and updated in April, 1998.<br />
<br />
== CHAPTER I- General Provisions ==<br />
<br />
'''Article 1''' <br />
<br />
In order to improve the system governing lawyers, to ensure that lawyers practice according to law, to standardise acts of lawyers, to safeguard the lawful rights & interests of parties, to ensure the correct implementation of law, to enable lawyers to play a positive role in the development of the socialist legal system, this Law is hereby enacted.<br />
<br />
'''Article 2''' <br />
<br />
The term "lawyer" as referred to herein means a practitioner who has acquired a lawyer's practice certificate pursuant to law & provides legal services to the public.<br />
<br />
'''Article 3''' <br />
<br />
In his/her practice, a lawyer must abide by the Constitution & law, strictly observe lawyers' professional ethics & practice discipline. In his/her practice, a lawyer must base him(her)self of facts & take law as the criterion. Practice by lawyers shall be subject to the supervision of the State, society & parties concerned. Lawful practice by lawyers shall be protected by law.<br />
<br />
''' Article 4''' <br />
<br />
The administrative department in charge of justice under the State Council shall supervise & guide lawyers, law firms & bar associations in accordance with this Law.<br />
<br />
<br />
==CHAPTER II-Conditions of Practice by Lawyers==<br />
<br />
'''Article 5''' <br />
<br />
In order to practice law, a person shall acquire qualification as a lawyer & a practice certificate.<br />
<br />
'''Article 6''' <br />
<br />
Personnel desiring to obtain the lawyer's qualification must pass the national uniform judicial examination. Personnel shall be qualified for lawyers if they have acquired four-year or more legal education in institutions of higher learning, or have acquired the undergraduate or above education in other majors in institutions of higher learning & have professional knowledge at law, have passed the national judicial examination. <br />
In localities where it is actually difficult to apply the educational background provisions of the preceding Paragraph, the educational background conditions may be relaxed to the three-year legal education in institutions of higher learning during a certain period upon the examination & approval of the administrative department in charge of justice of the State Council.<br />
<br />
'''Article 7''' <br />
<br />
A person applying to practice law who has acquired an undergraduate legal education in an institution of higher learning, or more education, who is engaged in professional work such as legal research & teaching, who has a senior professional title or is of an equivalent professional level, shall be granted the qualification of a lawyer, upon approval by the administrative department in charge of justice under the State Council after evaluation & verification in accordance with the prescribed conditions.<br />
<br />
'''Article 8''' <br />
<br />
A person who upholds the Constitution of the People's Republic of China & meets the following conditions may apply to obtain a lawyer's practice certificate: <br />
(1) possessing the qualification of a lawyer<br />
(2) having had practice training at a law firm for a full year; and<br />
(3) being a person of good character & conduct<br />
<br />
'''Article 9''' <br />
<br />
A person in one of the following situations shall not be issued a lawyer's practice certificate: <br />
(1) having no capacity for civil acts or having limited capacity for civil acts<br />
(2) having been subjected to criminal punishment, except for a crime of negligence; or<br />
(3) having been discharged from public employment or having had his/her lawyer's practice certificate revoked<br />
<br />
'''Article 10''' <br />
<br />
A person applying to obtain a lawyer's practice certificate shall submit the following documents: <br />
(1) an application<br />
(2) a lawyer qualification certificate<br />
(3) evaluation materials on practice training prepared by the applicant's law firm; and<br />
(4) a copy of the applicant's certificate of identity<br />
<br />
'''Article 11''' <br />
<br />
A person applying to obtain a lawyer's practice certificate who, upon examination by administrative department in charge of justice of the people's government at or above the level of the province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central People's Government, is considered to have met the conditions provided for in this Law shall be issued by the department a lawyer's practice certificate within 30 days of receiving the application. If the applicant fails to meet the conditions provided for in this Law, (s)he shall not be issued a lawyer's practice certificate & shall be notified of the matter in writing within 30 days of receiving his/her application.<br />
<br />
'''Article 12''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer shall practise in one law firm & shall not practise in two or more law firms simultaneously. A lawyer's practice is not subject to regional restriction.<br />
<br />
'''Article 13''' <br />
<br />
Any of the active working personnel of a State organ shall not concurrently practice as a lawyer. A lawyer shall not practice law while serving as a member of a standing committee of a people's congress at any level.<br />
<br />
'''Article 14''' <br />
<br />
A person who has not obtained a lawyer's practice certificate shall not practice law under the title of "lawyer" or act as agent ad litem or defend a client for the purpose of seeking economic benefit.<br />
<br />
<br />
== CHAPTER III-Law Firms ==<br />
<br />
'''Article 15''' <br />
<br />
A law firm is the organisation in which lawyers practice. A Law firm shall meet the following conditions: <br />
(1) to have its own name, domicile & articles of association<br />
(2) to have assets of RMB 100,000 or more; and<br />
(3) to have lawyers who conform to the provisions of this Law<br />
<br />
'''Article 16''' <br />
<br />
A Law firm established with the capital contribution from the State shall be independent in its practice pursuant to law & shall undertake liability for its debts with its entire assets.<br />
<br />
'''Article 17''' <br />
<br />
Lawyers may establish co-operative law firms, which shall undertake liability for their debts with their entire assets.<br />
<br />
'''Article 18''' <br />
<br />
Lawyers may establish partnership law firms. The partners shall undertake unlimited & joint & several liabilities for the debts of the law firm.<br />
<br />
'''Article 19''' <br />
<br />
Persons applying to establish a law firm who, after examination & verification by the administrative department in charge of justice of the people's government at or above the level of the province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central People's Government, are considered to meet the conditions provided for in this Law shall be issued by the department a law firm practice certificate within 30 days of receiving the application. Those who fail to meet the conditions provided for in this Law shall not be issued a law firm practice certificate & shall be notified of the matter in writing within 30 days of receiving the application.<br />
<br />
'''Article 20''' <br />
<br />
A law firm may establish branch offices. The establishment of a branch office shall be subject to examination & verification conducted in accordance with the prescribed conditions by the administrative department in charge of justice of the people's government of the province, autonomous region, or municipality directly under the Central People's Government where the proposed branch office is to be located. <br />
A law firm shall undertake liability for the debts of a branch office it has established.<br />
<br />
'''Article 21'''<br />
<br />
A law firm shall report to the original examination & verification department changes it wishes to make in important matters such as its name, domicile, articles of association, partners, or dissolution of the firm.<br />
<br />
'''Article 22''' <br />
<br />
A law firm shall, in accordance with the articles of association, arrange for lawyers to carry out business, study laws & State policies, summarise & exchange work experience.<br />
<br />
'''Article 23''' <br />
<br />
In case lawyers undertake business, their law firm shall centrally accept authorisation, sign written <br />
<br />
authorisation contracts with the clients and, in accordance with State regulations, collect fees from the parties & truthfully enter them in its accounts. Law firms & lawyers shall pay tax in accordance with law.<br />
<br />
'''Article 24''' <br />
<br />
Law firms & lawyers shall not solicit business by unfair means such as slandering other lawyers or paying middlemen's fees.<br />
<br />
<br />
== CHAPTER IV- Business: Rights & Obligations of Practising Lawyers ==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Article 25''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer may engage in the following business: <br />
(1) to accept engagement by citizens, legal persons or other organisations to act as legal counsel<br />
(2) to accept authorisation by a party in a civil/admin case to act as agent ad litem & participate in the proceedings<br />
(3) to accept engagement by a criminal suspect in a criminal case to provide him/her with legal advice & represent him/her in filing a petition or charge or obtaining a guarantor pending trial; to accept authorisation by a criminal suspect or defendant or accept appointment by a people's court to act for the defence; to accept authorisation by a private prosecutor in a case of private prosecution or by the victim or his/her close relatives in a case of public prosecution to act as agent ad litem & participate in the proceedings<br />
(4) to represent clients in filing petition in all types of litigation<br />
(5) to accept authorisation by a party to participate in mediation & arbitration activities<br />
(6) to accept authorisation by a party involved in non-litigation legal matters to provide legal services; and<br />
(7) to answer inquiries regarding law & to represent clients in writing litigation/legal documents<br />
<br />
'''Article 26'''<br />
<br />
A lawyer acting as legal counsel shall provide opinions regarding legal issues to the person who has engaged him/her, draft & review legal documents, act as agent to participate in litigation, mediation or arbitration activities, handle other legal matters authorised by the person who has engaged him/her, protect the lawful rights & interests of the person who has engaged him/her.<br />
<br />
'''Article 27''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer acting as agent in litigation or non-litigation legal matters shall, within the limits of authorisation, protect the lawful rights & interests of the client.<br />
<br />
'''Article 28''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer representing a defendant in criminal case shall present, on the basis of facts � law, materials & arguments to prove that a criminal suspect is innocent or is less guilty than charged, or that his/her criminal liabilities should be reduced or relieved, in order to protect the lawful rights & interests of the criminal suspect or defendant. <br />
<br />
'''Article 29''' <br />
<br />
A client may refuse to be further defended or represented by a lawyer, & may authorise another lawyer to act in his/her defence or to represent him/her. <br />
After accepting authorisation, a lawyer shall not, without good reason, refuse to defend or to represent a client. However, if the matter authorised violates law, the client uses the service provided by the lawyer to engage in illegal activities or the client conceals facts, the lawyer shall have the right to refuse to defend or to represent the client.<br />
<br />
'''Article 30''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer participating in litigation activities may, according to the provisions of procedure laws, collect and consult the materials pertaining to the case (s)he is undertaking, meet & correspond with a person whose personal freedom is restricted, appear in court, participate in litigation, & enjoy other rights provided for in the procedure laws. <br />
When a lawyer acts as agent ad litem or defends clients, his/her right to argue or present a defence shall be protected in accordance with law.<br />
<br />
'''Article 31''' <br />
<br />
When undertaking legal matters, a lawyer may, with the consent of the relevant units or individuals, address inquiries to such units or individuals.<br />
<br />
'''Article 32''' <br />
<br />
In his/her practice, a lawyer's personal rights shall not be infringed.<br />
<br />
'''Article 33''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer shall keep confidential secrets of the State & commercial secrets of the parties concerned that (s)he comes to know during his/her practice activities & shall not divulge the private affairs of the parties concerned.<br />
<br />
'''Article 34''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer shall not represent both parties involved in the same case.<br />
<br />
'''Article 35''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer shall not commit any of the following acts in his/her practice activities: <br />
(1) to accept authorisation privately, charge fees to the client privately, or accept money/things of value from the client<br />
(2) to seek the disputed rights & interests of a party or accept money/things of value from the opposing party by taking advantage of providing legal services<br />
(3) to meet with a judge, prosecutor, or arbitrator in violation of regulations<br />
(4) to entertain & give gifts to a judge, prosecutor, arbitrator or other relevant working personnel or bribe them, or instigate or induce a party to bribe them<br />
(5) to provide false evidence, conceal facts or intimidate or induce another with promise of gain to provide false evidence, conceal facts, or obstruct the opposing party's lawful obtaining of evidence; or<br />
(6) to disrupt the order of a court, or interfere with the normal conduct of litigation/arbitration activities<br />
<br />
'''Article 36''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer who once served as a judge or prosecutor shall not act as agent ad litem or defend clients within 2 years after leaving his/her post in the people's court or the people's procurator.<br />
<br />
<br />
== CHAPTER V-Bar Associations ==<br />
<br />
'''Article 37''' <br />
<br />
A bar association is a public organisation with the status of a legal person & shall be the lawyers' self -disciplinary organisation. <br />
The All-China Lawyers Association is established at the national level, while local bar associations are established by provinces, autonomous regions, & municipalities directly under the Central People's Government. Local bar associations may be established according to the need by cities divided into districts.<br />
<br />
'''Article 38''' <br />
<br />
The articles of association of bar associations are formulated centrally by the national congress of the members & submitted to the administrative department in charge of justice under the State Council for the record.<br />
<br />
'''Article 39''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer must join his/her local bar association. A lawyer who has joined his/her local bar association is at the same time a member of the All-China Lawyers Association. <br />
In accordance with the articles of association of bar association, members of bar associations shall enjoy the rights granted by, perform the obligations specified in the articles of association.<br />
<br />
'''Article 40''' <br />
<br />
Bar associations shall perform the following duties: <br />
(1) assuring that lawyers practise according to law & protecting lawyers' lawful rights & interests<br />
(2) summarising & exchanging lawyers' work experience<br />
(3) organising professional training for lawyers<br />
(4) conducting education in, inspection of, supervision over the professional ethics & practice discipline of lawyers<br />
(5) making arrangements for exchanges between Chinese & foreign lawyers<br />
(6) mediating disputes arising in lawyers' practice activities; and<br />
(7) other duties prescribed by law<br />
<br />
Bar associations shall give awards to or take disciplinary measures against lawyers in accordance with the articles of association.<br />
<br />
==CHAPTER VI-Legal Aid==<br />
<br />
'''Article 41''' <br />
<br />
Citizen who needs assistance of lawyers in respect of matters such as livelihood support, work-related injuries, criminal procedure, claims for State compensation or claims for lawful payment of pensions for the disabled or families of the deceased, but cannot afford lawyers fees, may obtain legal aid in accordance with State regulations.<br />
<br />
'''Article 42''' <br />
<br />
A lawyer must undertake the duty of legal aid in accordance with State regulations, provide the recipient with legal services in fulfilment of his/her duty & responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''Article 43''' <br />
<br />
Specific measures for legal aid shall be formulated by the administrative department in charge of justice under the State Council & submitted to the State Council for approval.<br />
<br />
==CHAPTER VII-Legal Liabilities==<br />
<br />
'''Article 44''' <br />
<br />
If a lawyer commits any of the following acts, the administrative department in charge of justice of the people's government of a province, autonomous region, municipality directly under the Central People's Government or a city divided into districts shall issue a disciplinary warning. Where the case is serious, the said department shall impose a penalty of cessation of practice for no less than 3 months and no more than 1 year. Illegal gains shall be confiscated: <br />
(1) simultaneously practising in two or more law firms<br />
(2) representing both parties involved in the same case<br />
(3) soliciting business by unfair means such as slandering other lawyers or paying middleman's fees<br />
(4) refusing to defend or represent a client, without good reason, after accepting authorisation<br />
(5) failing to appear in court on schedule to participate in litigation or arbitration without good reason<br />
(6) divulging commercial secrets or private affairs of a party concerned<br />
(7) accepting authorisation privately, charging fees to a client privately, accepting money or things of value from a client or using the provision of legal services to seek the disputed rights and interests of a party concerned or accepting money or things of value from the opposing party<br />
(8) meeting with a judge, prosecutor, or arbitrator in violation of regulations or entertaining & giving gifts to a judge, prosecutor, arbitrator, or other relevant working personnel<br />
(9) obstructing the opposing party's lawful obtaining of evidence<br />
(10) disrupting the order of a court, or interfering with the normal conduct of litigation/arbitration activities; or<br />
(11) other acts in respect of which penalties should be imposed<br />
<br />
'''Article 45''' <br />
<br />
In case a lawyer commits any of the following acts, the administrative department in charge of justice of the people's government of a province, autonomous region, or municipality directly under the Central People's Government shall revoke his/her practice certificate.<br />
Where the case constitutes a crime, (s)he shall be prosecuted for criminal liabilities according to law:<br />
(1) divulging State secrets<br />
(2) bribing a judge, prosecutor, arbitrator or other relevant working personnel or instigating or inducing a party to do so<br />
(3) providing false evidence, concealing important facts or intimidating or inducing another with promise of gain to provide false evidence or conceal important facts<br />
Where a lawyer is subjected to criminal punishment for an intentional crime, his/her lawyer's practice certificate shall be revoked.<br />
<br />
'''Article 46''' <br />
<br />
A person who impersonates a lawyer & provides legal services shall be ordered by the public security authorities to cease the illegal practice of law, which shall confiscate his/her illegal gains a may also impose a fine of no more than RMB 5,000 & detention of no more than 15 days. <br />
A person who has not obtained a lawyer's practice certificate but engages in the business of acting as agent ad litem or defending clients for the purpose of seeking economic benefit shall be ordered to cease the illegal practice of law by the administrative department in charge of justice of the local people's government at or above the county level, which shall confiscate any illegal gains & may also impose a fine of no less than 1x & no more than 5x the amount of the illegal gains.<br />
<br />
'''Article 47''' <br />
<br />
A law firm that commits an act in violation of the provisions of this Law shall be ordered to make corrections by the administrative department in charge of justice of the people's government of a province, autonomous region, or municipality directly under the Central People's Government, which shall confiscate any illegal gains & may also impose a fine of no less than 1x & no more than 5x the amount of the illegal gains. Where the case is serious, the law firm shall be ordered to cease practice for rectification or its practice certificate shall be revoked.<br />
<br />
'''Article 48''' <br />
<br />
If a person on whom a penalty has been imposed does not accept the decision on the administrative penalty rendered by the administrative department in charge of justice, (s)he may apply for a review to the administrative department in charge of justice at the next higher level within 15 days of receiving the decision. If (s)he does not accept the review decision, (s)he may bring a lawsuit in a people's court within 15 days of receiving the review decision. (S)he may also directly bring a lawsuit in a people's court. <br />
If a person who has been fined neither applies for a review, institutes administrative proceedings, nor complies with the penalty decision, the administrative department in charge of justice that rendered the penalty decision may apply to a people's court for compulsory enforcement. <br />
If an application is made for a lawyer's practice certificate according to Article 11 of this Law or application is made for approval to establish a law firm in accordance with Article 19 of this Law, & the applicant does not accept the decision not to issue a lawyer's practice certificate or a practice certificate for the law firm, (s)he may apply for review or bring a lawsuit pursuant to the procedure provided by the Paragraph I of this Article.<br />
<br />
''' Article 49''' <br />
<br />
In case a lawyer practices illegally or causes losses to a party due to his/her fault, the law firm in which (s)he practices shall bear the liability for compensation. After paying compensation, the law firm may claim recovery from the lawyer that acted intentionally or committed gross negligence. <br />
Lawyers & law firms may not be relieved of or limited in the civil liability that they shall bear for the losses caused to a party due to illegal practice of law or fault.<br />
<br />
==CHAPTER VIII-Supplementary Provisions==<br />
<br />
'''Article 50''' <br />
<br />
With respect to lawyers who serve in the military & provide legal services to the military, their obtaining of the qualification as a lawyer, their rights, obligations & code of conduct as a lawyer shall be governed by this Law. Specific measures for administration of military lawyers shall be formulated separately by the State Council & the Central Military Commission.<br />
<br />
'''Article 51''' <br />
<br />
Specific measures governing the establishment of offices by foreign law firms to engage in prescribed legal service activities within the territory of the People's Republic of China shall be formulated by the State Council.<br />
<br />
'''Article 52''' <br />
<br />
Specific measures on lawyer's fees shall be formulated by the administrative department in charge of <br />
justice under the State Council & submitted to the State Council for approval.<br />
<br />
----<br />
See [[China]]</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381097China2023-09-10T14:11:48Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
<br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381096China/zh2023-09-10T14:00:42Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
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* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
<br />
法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
<br />
2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力<ref> Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref>。 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民 <ref> Craig M. Bradley, 刑事诉讼程序 全球研究 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
<br />
=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色<ref>最高人民法院、最高人民检察院、公安部等,关于推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革的意见, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref>.辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
<br />
2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源<ref> “中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref>。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
<br />
从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
<br />
在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会<ref>“证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref>。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<ref>“中国|世界监狱简报” </ref><br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。<ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, </ref><br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
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*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<ref>“今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381095China/zh2023-09-10T11:48:46Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力。<ref> <br />
Xu, L. (2019). 中国法律视角的变迁:社会主义法治、新兴判例法与“一带一路”倡议, The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, 5(2), 153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042 </ref> 不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民。<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色。辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。 <br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。 <br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员<br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。 <br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381094China/zh2023-09-10T11:46:53Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力。不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民。<br />
<br />
=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
<br />
*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
<br />
=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
<br />
*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
<br />
自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色。辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
<br />
*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
<br />
== 审前阶段 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
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在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
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从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
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在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。 <br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。 <br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员<br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。 <br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China_Criminal_Defense_Manual_-_Developing_a_Defense_for_Trial/zh&diff=381093China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial/zh2023-09-10T04:36:55Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial}}<br />
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== 与当事人会谈时,律师需要考虑的问题 ==<br />
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如何利用与当事人面谈收集到的信息来进行辩护,下列问题也许会对你有所<br />
帮助。<br />
*被告人有没有共同被告人?(共同被告人指起诉罪名与被告人相同的人) <br />
**如果有,获取尽可能多的关于共同被告人的信息,包括他们的犯罪前科。<br />
**考虑一下,让被告人做证反对共同被告是否对被告人本人有利,以便换取被告人被释放或使被告获得较轻的判决。<br />
**要意识到共同被告人可能会做出不利于被告人的证词。<br />
**要意识到共同被告人可能会把被告人告诉他/她的事情告诉当局。警告被告人不要就案件与共同被告人交谈或任何律师和调查者以外的人。<br />
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== 各种辩护策略 ==<br />
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=== '''介绍'''===<br />
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在构建辩护意见的过程中,刑辩律师必须判断是否能替被告人开脱罪名。假如能够做到这点,还需考虑该如何向法官们证明被告人无罪。下面列举了一些在中国法律框架下,可能为被告人开脱的辩护方法,并指出了它们适用于何种情节。<br />
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'''控诉方应承担举证责任'''<br />
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应当记住,被告人享有无罪推定的权利。未经人民法院依法判决,对任何人不得确定有罪(刑事诉讼法第 12 条)。在刑事案件中,检察官有责任承担对被告人所控罪名的举证责任。这意味着检察官必须证明该指控事实清楚且证据充分。<br />
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'''指控方是否已履行其举证责任?'''<br />
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在提出其他辩护之前,刑事辩护律师应该批判性地分析控方起诉书,以认定案件中指控的犯罪到底发生与否。假如有,又应考虑指控方所提供的证据是否足以支撑他们提出的罪名。若指控为另一罪名(更轻的罪名),是否更符合案件证据情况?下面是一些应该思考的问题:<br />
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所指控的罪名有哪些构成要件?例如:<br />
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主动行为:被告人是否自发地实施了行为?控诉方提供了哪些证据来证明被告人是自主行为?<br />
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主观状态:在什么样的意图驱使之下,被告人的行为才构成犯罪?(比如:故意、过失)该罪名是否属于严格责任原则罪名(即控诉方不必要对被告人行动意图举证)?检察官提供了哪些证据来证明<br />
被告人行为发生时必须有的意图、必须掌握的某方面知识技能、或存在的过失?<br />
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因果关系:被告人的行为是否导致了最终的损害?<br />
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直接原因:被告人的行为离指控罪名甚远,不应承担该罪名的法律责任?<br />
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法律义务:在此种情况下,法律是否规定被告人需按照某种特定方式行使特殊的法律义务?<br />
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哪些法律规定了罪名的构成要件?这些法律之间有无矛盾?<br />
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指控方是否本应提出更轻的罪名?<br />
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所指控罪名的各个构成要件各需要多强的证据才能成立?应指控罪名的构成要件情况如何?<br />
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现有的证据是否能满足所指控罪名各要件的证据要求?指控罪名中的各个要件的证据要求又如何?哪些证据支持控方起诉意见?哪些证据与控方起诉意见不符?<br />
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假如控方没有提供足够的证据来支撑他指控的罪名,甚至不能支撑本应提出的较轻罪名,刑事辩护律师就应当庭指出这些问题,并要求法庭判被告人无罪或指控罪名不成立。<br />
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=== '''被告人的行为是否构成犯罪?'''===<br />
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另一个要考虑的重要问题是被告人的行为是否可以构成某种犯罪。刑法第13 条提供了“犯罪”的定义:“情节显著轻微危害不大的,不认为是犯罪”此外,刑法第 16 条规定:“行为在客观上虽然造成了损害结果,但是不是出于故意或者过失,而是由于不能抗拒或者不能预见的原因所引起的,不是犯罪。”假如 13 条或 16 条规定的情况成立,援助律师就应该要求法庭宣判无罪,因为法庭无权在被告人行为不构成犯罪的情况下判其有罪。(刑诉法 16(1))<br />
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'''追诉是否超过有效期限?'''<br />
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假如控方追诉已过时效,刑事辩护律师就应根据相关法律,提出追诉时效已过的辩护。刑诉法 16(2)规定:“有下列情形之一的,不追究刑事责任,已经追究的,应当撤销案件,或者不起诉,或者终止审理,或者宣告无罪。犯罪已过追诉时效期限的”<br />
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刑法第 87 条的规定了刑法中的追诉时效:<br />
(一)法定最高刑为不满五年有期徒刑的,经过五年;<br />
(二)法定最高刑为五年以上不满十年有期徒刑的,经过十年;<br />
(三)法定最高刑为十年以上有期徒刑的,经过十五年;<br />
(四)法定最高刑为无期徒刑、死刑的,经过二十年。如果二十年以后认为必须追诉的,须报请最高人民检察院核准。<br />
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在人民检察院、公安机关、国家安全机关立案侦查或者在人民法院受理案件以后,逃避侦查或者审判的,不受追诉期限的限制。被害人在追诉期限<br />
内提出控告,人民法院、人民检察院、公安机关应当立案而不予立案的,不受追诉期限的限制。(刑法第 88 条)<br />
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追诉期限从犯罪之日起计算;犯罪行为有连续或者继续状态的,从犯罪行为终了之日起计算。 在追诉期限以内又犯罪的,前罪追诉的期限从犯后罪之日起计算。(刑法第 89 条)<br />
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'''假如不否认犯罪事实,能否替被告人辩护(肯定性辩护)?'''<br />
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在肯定性辩护中,刑事辩护律师并不否认所指控罪名的各要件确实存在,但依然试图证明被告人无罪。这类辩护要求刑事辩护律师提供足够的证据,无论是证人证词还是实物。在不否认犯罪事实的前提下,这类辩护试图证明被告人的行为是正当的,或提供另一种被法律认可的开脱途径。<br />
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'''是否为被告人进行无罪辩护?'''<br />
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这类辩护是肯定性辩护的一种,目的是证明被告人“我没有犯罪”,即证明被告人不可能犯下案件所涉及的罪行。无罪辩护有两种最常见的角度:证明被告人不在场和从物证角度出发证明犯罪不可能发生。使用第一种策略时,刑事辩护律师能够提供可靠的证据,比如某位现场证人的证词,来证明案发时,被告人不在现场;假如使用第二种策略,援助律师就需要引用可靠证据证明有关被告人的某些物证的局限性,并说明这些局限性如何排除了其犯罪的可能性。例如,被告人被指控用右手刺伤被害人,同时控诉方的证据表明被害人确实是被某人的右手所伤。这种情况下,假如刑事辩护律师能够提供可靠证据证明被告人先前受伤后一直无法使用右手,就可认定被告人不可能犯下所指控罪行。<br />
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=== '''可否为被告人进行正当事由辩护?'''===<br />
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正当事由辩护是肯定性辩护的另一种。进行这种辩护时,被告人虽然并不否认罪行是自己所为,但需要证明自己不应为此行为承担法律责任。被告人的辩护意见会采取“我确实做了,但是……”的形式。被告人由于社会认可或符合道德原则的理由做出犯罪行为。<br />
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1.法律明定的排除违法性事由:正当防卫与紧急避险<br />
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刑法第 20 条定义“正当防卫”为:“为了使国家、公共利益、本人或者他人的人身、财产和其他权利免受正在进行的不法侵害,而采取的制止不法侵害的行为,对不法侵害人造成损害的,属于正当防卫,不负刑事责任。”被告人不需为正当防卫负刑事责任。然而,假如被告人的行为超出了“必要”的范围而造成过于严重的伤害,他就需要负刑事责任,但同时可减刑,甚至免刑。刑法第 20 条规定:“正当防卫明显超过必要限度造成重大损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。 对正在进行行凶、杀人、抢劫、强奸、绑架以及其他严重危及人身安全的暴力犯罪,采取防卫行为,造成不法侵害人伤亡的,不属于防卫过当,不负刑事责任。”<br />
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2.法律所明定的减刑辩护事由<br />
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神经失常:<br />
刑法第 18 条规定:“精神病人在不能辨认或者不能控制自己行为的时候造成危害结果,经法定程序鉴定确认的,不负刑事责任” 假如案发时被告人确实已失去了辨认或控制自身行为的能力,辩护律师必须为其精神失常提供证据。假如控诉方能够证明被告人在案发时神志正常,被告人就必须承担刑事责任。<br />
<br />
减轻责任:<br />
刑法第 18 条又规定:“尚未完全丧失辨认或者控制自己行为能力的精神病人犯罪的,应当负刑事责任,但是可以从轻或者减轻处罚。”即是无法证明被告人在案发时不能辨认或控制自身行为,辩护律师仍然可以引入被告人精神失常的证据(比如无法拥有某种构成犯罪所必需的意图),从而为被告人减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
未成年人:<br />
在未成年辩护中,刑事辩护律师强调被告人因年龄太小而不应负刑事责任。刑法第 17 条规定 16 岁为承担刑事责任的下限。但是,假如被告人已满十四岁不满十六岁,犯故意杀人、故意伤害致人重伤或者死亡、强奸、抢劫、贩卖毒品、放火、爆炸、投放危险物质罪的,被告人应当负刑事责任。此外,十二岁,犯故意杀人、故意伤害罪,致人死亡或者以特别残忍手段致人重伤造成严重残疾,情节恶劣,经最高人民检察院核准追诉的,应当负刑事责任。援助律师可为不足 12 岁的被告人进行未成年辩护,亦可为 12 到 16 岁之间,但所犯罪行不严重的被告人进行未成年辩护。即使被告人已满 12 岁,且犯下严重罪行,假如其心理年龄或智力年龄远低于其实际年龄,援助律师依然可为其进行未成年辩护(比如,被告人有智障,心理年龄只相当于幼儿)。<br />
<br />
3.其他可供参考的辩护事由<br />
<br />
受虐妇女综合症:<br />
虽然某些法庭不承认受虐妇女综合症本身可构成刑事辩护,但是它可以作为其他辩护的辅助证据,比如自我正当防卫辩护、受强迫辩护、等等。因为受虐妇女综合症患者的行动规则异于常人,解释其行为需要有专家作证。有些法庭曾允许使用关于受虐妇女综合症的专家证词来证明被告人没有犯罪意图。<br />
<br />
受逼迫或胁迫辩护:<br />
假如被告人是受他人逼迫或胁迫后才犯下罪行,援助律师就可为其进行受逼迫或胁迫辩护。刑法第 28 条规定:“对于被胁迫参加犯罪的,应当按照他的犯罪情节减轻处罚或者免除处罚。”当一个案件涉及多名被告人,且其中一名有可能受到其他人胁迫时,辩护律师经常会使用这类辩护。<br />
<br />
必要性辩护:<br />
当被告人为了防止更大伤害出现而犯下某些罪行时,可为其进行必要性辩护。刑法第 21 条规定:“为了使国家、公共利益、本人或者他人的人身、财产和其他权利免受正在发生的危险,不得已采取的紧急避险行为,造成损害的,不负刑事责任。紧急避险超过必要限度造成不应有的损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。”与正当防卫的情况类似,假如被告人采取的行为逾越了“必要”范围而造成过大伤害,他就必须承担刑事责任,但可减刑或免刑。21 条的规定不适用于职务或业务上有特定责任之人。<br />
<br />
误解法律/误解事实辩护:<br />
在这类辩护中,刑事辩护律师认为被告人完全不知道其行为构成犯罪。在误解法律辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明:第一,只有在被告人知法且犯法的情况下,所指控罪名才成立;第二,被告人在案发时并不知法。在误解事实辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明:第一,案发时被告人对实际形势理解有误;第二,假如他当时理解无误,就不会犯罪;第三,他的错误理解情有可原。<br />
<br />
政府唆使犯罪/政府误导犯罪刑事辩护:<br />
当被告人受政府官员唆使或误导而犯罪时,可以考虑使用这两类辩护。在官员唆使犯罪的辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明政府官员曾唆使被告人犯罪,而若无此唆使,被告人就不会犯罪。在政府误导性犯罪辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明:第一,曾有政府官员告知被告人其行为合法;第二,被告人因相信该信息才犯下罪行;第三,被告人的轻信情有可原。综述以上三点,就可认定被告人不该承担法律责任。在这类辩护中,重点在于政府官员的行为,而非被告人的思维状态,亦非被告人之前是否有犯罪动机。即使案件涉及严格责任原则罪行,依然可进行政府误导性犯罪辩护。<br />
<br />
诚意犯罪辩护:<br />
所谓诚意,可指非常诚恳的意见或信念,或用于形容某人缺乏邪念与恶意。通常,诚意犯罪辩护适用于某些需要确定特别意图的税收或财务作假案件。蓄意欺骗或故意造假敛财不能与诚意同时存在。因此,假如刑事辩护律师能证明被告人在行动中存在很强的诚意,就可推出被告人不存在指控方所提出的欺骗或造假意图。<br />
<br />
==='''被告人是否将罪行实施完毕?'''===<br />
<br />
虽然被告人犯罪的性质不能作为无罪辩护的依据,但可以影响法院 最后裁定的刑罚轻重,甚至可以促使法庭决定免刑。因此,援助律师必须仔细地研究被告人的行为,以确定下述情况是否存在,从而为被告人申请减刑,甚或免刑。<br />
<br />
犯罪预备:<br />
刑法第 22 条定义“预备犯罪”为:“为了犯罪,准备工具、制造条件的,是犯罪预备。”即罪行还处于预备阶段。在此情下,被告人可减刑或免刑。<br />
<br />
犯罪未遂:<br />
刑法第 23 条定义“犯罪未遂”为:“已经着手实行犯罪,由于犯罪分子意志以外的原因而未得逞的,是犯罪未遂。”试图犯罪未遂的被告人可减刑或免刑。<br />
<br />
犯罪中止:<br />
刑法第 24 条定义“中止犯罪”为:“在犯罪过程中,自动放弃犯罪或者自动有效地防止犯罪结果发生的,是犯罪中止。”假如被告人中断了犯罪,而没有造成任何伤害,可免刑;即使存在某种伤害,依然可减刑。<br />
<br />
'''有没有人比当事人对犯罪行为负有更多责任?'''<br />
<br />
被告人有没有其他的同案犯?假如有的话,辩护律师必须调查好每一个同案犯的具体角色。 这样你才能确定当事人在犯罪过程中扮演的实际角色。律师需要注意一下共同犯罪(刑法第二十五条 共同犯罪是指二人以上共同故意犯罪)和犯罪集团(刑法第 26 条,三人以上为共同实施犯罪而组成的较为固定的犯罪组织,是犯罪集团):<br />
<br />
当事人是否是犯罪过程中的主谋?你的当事人是否组织,策划或指导犯罪组织或其它同案犯?你的 当事人是否在共同犯罪过程中是位重要角色。你的当事人是首要分子刑法(第 97 条)或是主犯吗?刑法(第 26 条)对组织、领导犯罪集团的首要分子,按照集团所犯的全部罪行处罚。刑法第二十六规定:“对于第三款规定以外的主犯,应当按照其所参与的或者组织、指挥的全部犯罪处罚。”你的当事人是否教唆他人犯罪? 刑法第二十九规定:“教唆他人犯罪的,应当按照他在共同犯罪中所起的作用处罚。教唆不满十八周岁的人犯罪的,应当从重处罚。如果被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪,对于教唆犯,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。”<br />
<br />
你的当事人是否只是在犯罪的预谋和实施阶段中扮演次要角色?<br />
<br />
刑法第二十七条规定: 在共同犯罪中起次要或者辅助作用的,是从犯。对于从犯,应当从轻、减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
刑法第二十九条规定: 如果被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪,对于教唆犯,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''你的当事人应该获得减轻的刑罚或者免除刑罚?'''<br />
<br />
法律在一些情况下允许法庭判处被告人减轻刑罚或者免除罪行。 刑法第六十三条规定: “犯罪分子具有本法规定的减轻处罚情节的,应当在法定刑以下判处刑罚。” 以下的刑法条是关于减轻刑罚的规定:<br />
<br />
第十七条 已满十四周岁不满十八周岁的人犯罪,应当从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第十八条 尚未完全丧失辨认或者控制自己行为能力的精神病人犯罪的,应当负刑事责任,但是可以从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第十九条 又聋又哑的人或者盲人犯罪,可以从轻、减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十条 正当防卫明显超过必要限度造成重大损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十一条 紧急避险超过必要限度造成不应有的损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十二条 对于预备犯,可以比照既遂犯从轻、减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十三条 对于未遂犯,可以比照既遂犯从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十四条 对于中止犯,没有造成损害的,应当免除处罚;造成损害的,应当减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十七条 对于从犯,应当从轻、减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十八条 对于被胁迫参加犯罪的,应当按照他的犯罪情节减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十九条 如果被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪,对于教唆犯,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第六十七条 犯罪以后自动投案,如实供述自己的罪行的,是自首。对于自首的犯罪分子,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。其中,犯罪较轻的,可以免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第六十八条 犯罪分子有揭发他人犯罪行为,查证属实的,或者提供重要线索,从而得以侦破其他案件等立功表现的,可以从轻或者减轻处罚;有重大立功表现的,可以减轻或者免除处罚。 犯罪后自首又有重<br />
大立功表现的,应当减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
'''假如法条上没有具体明示的减轻刑罚,律师还可以为我当事人争取减轻刑罚吗?'''<br />
<br />
是的,刑法 63 条规定 “犯罪分子具有本法规定的减轻处罚情节的,应当在法定刑以下判处刑罚。 犯罪分子虽然不具有本法规定的减轻处罚情节,但是根据案件的特殊情况,经最高人民法院核准,也可以在法定刑以下判处刑罚。” 虽然法条没有具体明确减轻处罚,辩护律师还可以用相关的有力证据来向法庭证明当事人应减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
以下列举了一部分减轻刑罚的证据种类:<br />
<br />
1. 被告人没有长期的犯罪记录。<br />
<br />
2. 被告人对自己参与了犯罪已经表示了诚恳的自责反省。<br />
<br />
3. 被告人已经赔偿了被害者所有的损失。<br />
<br />
4. 被告人还是位未成年人而且他还想继续上学。他的学校也允许他继<br />
续上学。<br />
<br />
5. 被告人需要照顾家里的孩子和老人。<br />
<br />
6. 被告人智力水平低下,所以他很难做出理智地判断,而被别人轻易<br />
利用。<br />
<br />
7. 被告人有艰苦的童年生活(比如小时候在家里受虐待),因此他的健康成长受到了影响。<br />
<br />
8. 被告人要克服的困难大,是个人极限的挑战(家庭暴力,吸毒上瘾)<br />
<br />
9. 被告人有良好的工作和教育经验,或者为社会曾做出过杰出贡献。<br />
<br />
10. 律师考虑如何把被告人描述成为令人同情,宽恕的当事人的任何一种办法。<br />
<br />
想得到这些减轻刑罚的证据,辩护律师必须得到当事人、他的家人和当事人一生中的重要人物(比如老师,老板)的信任。 减轻刑罚的证据也必须成为辩护意见的重要组成部分。 在法庭上出示减轻刑罚的证据,辩护律师不必胆怯使用自己的感情。辩护律师的目的就是要法庭看到当事人的人性一面而且给他一个重新做人的机会。<br />
<br />
=== '''结论'''===<br />
<br />
在构建律师辩护意见的过程中,需要仔细考虑控方是否承担起举证责任。还有,通过调查结论,辩护律师能够判断出当事人的行为是否构成犯罪, 当事人是否有没有任何正当辩护的可能, 当事人是否实际上已完成整个犯罪活动, 当事人是否只是从犯,是否有证据支持当事人有减轻刑罚的可能。这些问题分析后, 辩护律师才能在法庭上展示一个完整的、富有说服力的辩护意见。<br />
<br />
==与当事人会谈时,律师需要考虑的问题==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''如何利用与当事人面谈收集到的信息来进行辩护,下列问题也许会对你有所帮助。'''<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告人有没有共同被告?(共同被告指起诉罪名与被告相同的人)'''<br />
**如果有,获取尽可能多的关于共同被告的信息,包括他们的犯罪前科。<br />
**考虑一下,让被告做证反对共同被告是否对被告本人有利,以便换取被告被释放或使被告获得较轻的判决。<br />
**要意识到共同被告可能会做出不利于被告的证词。<br />
**要意识到共同被告可能会把被告告诉他/她的事情告诉当局。警告被告不要就案件与共同被告交谈或任何律师和调查者以外的人。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''公安机关逮捕和拘留被告人的程序是否符合法律规定?'''<br />
**是否出示逮捕证或 拘留证。<br />
**被告人家人是否在24小时内告知当事人的逮捕和拘留,并通知拘禁地点。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告是否向警方做了供述?'''<br />
**被告人被拘捕24小时之内是否受到审讯?<br />
**在场是否有至少两名审讯人员?<br />
**被告供述一般包括哪些主要内容?<br />
**关押或审讯期间是否对被告施行了高压、威胁、拷问或其他残忍、非人性或卑鄙的手段及惩罚方式?如果供述是非法取得的,要考虑提出申诉。<br />
**讯问笔录是否经过被告的查阅并签字?<br />
**被告的供述是口头的、书面的、录音或拍摄下来的?设法取得供述的一份复印件?<br />
**被告人是否自己书写了个人供述?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''警方有没有对被告身体的生理分泌物取样?'''<br />
**警方有没有对被告身体的生理分泌物取样,比如血液、呼吸器官、尿或精液?如果有的话,设法取得医学检测报告。<br />
**主动保存取样和考虑对被告的生理分泌物重新进行检测。<br />
**公安机关是否带走其他和犯罪有关的物品?<br />
**有无获取物证?是否有搜查证?是否对搜查做了全程记录?是否列出搜查所得物证的相关目录?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''辩护是什么?'''<br />
**如果有证人可以证明被告不在案发现场,设法取得该证人的姓名、地址及电话号码等信息,让一名调查者立即与证人联系。<br />
**如果被告声称自己的行为是自卫、紧急避险行为,并因此而受伤,要立即拍下相关的照片。(刑法:第20, 21 条)<br />
**查明起诉方证人(包括受害人)是否可以信赖,比如他们是否有犯罪记录?被告人的社会关系是否较差?受害人是否已获得赔偿?如果是,赔偿的金额,何时,何人支付?如果被告声称第三者实施了犯罪行为,尽可能找到更多的细节,让一名调查者查明被告所称是否属实。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告是否需要鉴定?'''<br />
**被告是否需要精神或身体鉴定?是否需要专家或一名神经科专家进行相应的鉴定?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告以前是否被定过罪?'''<br />
**有犯罪前科可能会加长被告判刑的年限。立即查找、设法取得有关被告以前犯罪记录的复印件。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告是否被关押?'''<br />
**看被告能否获得取保候审,律师应掌握所需要的材料,帮助被告取保候审,包括可能的保证人和可作取保候审的财产。<br />
<br />
== 辩护律师的阅卷权==<br />
<br />
<br />
#阅卷权是指辩护律师在诉讼活动中有权查阅办案机关制作或者掌握的案件卷宗材料。在我国刑事诉讼过程中,公、检、法机关进行的每一步诉讼活动都要在卷宗记明,相关证据与程序步骤均需在案卷中全面、如实的记载,案卷是公安、司法人员处理案件的基本依据,也是律师进行辩护的重要参考凭据。《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条规定,辩护律师自人民检察院对案件审查起诉之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料,自人民法院受理案件之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案指控的犯罪事实材料。根据刑事诉讼法第一百五十条的规定,这里所谓的“本案指控的犯罪事实材料”并非全部案卷,而是检察院起诉时移送的“证据目录、证人名单与主要证据的复印件”,而移送材料的具体范围与包含的内容由检察机关自己决定。<br />
#《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条规定了辩护律师在审查起诉阶段的阅卷权,“辩护律师自人民检察院对案件审查起诉之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料”。可见,律师在审查起诉阶段阅卷的范围是有限的,仅仅限于“诉讼文书”与“技术性鉴定材料”两部分内容。对于二者的具体范围,《人民检察院刑事诉讼规则》第三百一十九条进一步予以了明确,所谓“诉讼文书”包括立案决定书、拘留证、批准逮捕决定书、逮捕决定书、逮捕证、搜查证、起诉意见书等为立案、采取强制措施和侦查措施以及提请审查起诉而制作的程序性文书。所谓“技术性鉴定材料”包括法医鉴定、司法精神病鉴定、物证技术鉴定等由有鉴定资格的人员对人身、物品及其他有关证据材料进行鉴定所形成的记载鉴定情况和鉴定结论的文书。从辩护实践来看,在上述诉讼文书与材料中,律师首先应当查阅的文件为起诉意见书,因为起诉意见书是侦查机关经过对案件侦查所形成的总结性材料,是侦查机关向检察机关移送起诉的依据,侦查机关指控犯罪嫌疑人的主要事实集中反映在起诉意见书中,辩护律师查阅后,可以对犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的案情有一个概括的了解。<br />
在律师进行阅卷的过程中,有两个具体问题值得注意:一是《关于人民检察院保障律师在刑事诉讼中依法执业的规定》(2003年12月30日)进一步要求检察院公诉部门,对于律师要求查阅、摘抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料的,受理后应当安排办理;不能当日办理的,应当向律师说明理由,并在3日内择定日期,及时通知律师。二是根据《六部委规定》第14条,律师查阅、摘抄、复制案件的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料,相关办案部门,只能收取复制材料所必要的工本费,不得收取各种其他名目的费用,而且工本费收取的标准应当全国统一,由最高人民法院、最高人民检察院报国家价格主管部门核定。<br />
<br />
==辩护律师调查取证据==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''法律背景'''===<br />
<br />
中国法律允许刑事辩护律师采取以下行为:<br />
#审查起诉后查阅诉讼文书和技术性鉴定材料。(刑事诉讼法:第36条)<br />
#进行独立调查,对公安机关和检察机关搜集的证据予以核实 (刑事诉讼法:第37条) <br />
#对专家证人的证词进行评估 (刑事诉讼法:第121 条)<br />
#从证人和受害人那里获取独立的陈述 (刑事诉讼法:第37 条)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''为帮助你对与案件有关的证据进行调查,下列问题是很好的建议:'''<br />
<br />
*'''行动要迅速'''<br />
**最好尽快启动调查<br />
**拖延可能导致失去物证<br />
**证人容易记起刚刚发生的事件<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''注意防范风险'''<br />
#两人进行<br />
#取证后,请被取证人签名<br />
#建议全程录音<br />
#侦查阶段不要调查取证,一是因为法律没有明确准许;二是其取得证据的证明能力,可能遭到法官的质疑<br />
#最好是申请公、检、法机关取证<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''容易获取的信息来源'''<br />
**起诉意见书<br />
**合法调查<br />
**同案犯的供述<br />
**与当事人会谈<br />
**证人<br />
**鉴定结论<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''案发现场'''<br />
**如允许与可能,尽快到案发现场勘查<br />
**利用素描、图表、拍照、录象带,测量等方式记录案发现场的证据<br />
**寻找未被收集的证据<br />
**确定证人并记录将来与他们取得联系的方式<br />
**寻找警方没有访问的证人<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''证人'''<br />
**会见证人至少需要有除律师以外的另一个人在场,全国律协建议2人以上<br />
**记录会见当事人的录象带,磁带<br />
**证人是否具有提供证词的能力?有精神缺陷的人或者年幼没有是非明辩能力的人或不能清楚正确表达的人都不能作为证人(中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法第48条)<br />
**如有可能,会见起诉方的证人(刑事诉讼法:第37条)<br />
**会见目击证人<br />
**运用你的个性,感染不愿做证的证人,说服其予以配合<br />
**与证人的交谈要在安全、舒适的环境中进行<br />
**记录证人的背景资料及当前的工作情况<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''证人和被害人陈述'''<br />
**有没有用录象带或磁带录下证人和被害人的陈述?<br />
**警方摘录了证人和被害人陈述中的哪部分内容?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词是证人和被害人自己亲笔写的吗?<br />
**证人和被害人提供证词的动机是什么?该案件是否牵涉到证人的利益?<br />
**被害人是否受伤?被害人是否提供有关他受伤程度的具体信息?<br />
**被害人和被告人之间是什么关系?证人和被告人之间?证人和被害人之间?<br />
**被害人是否得到某种赔偿?如果有,何时,多少以及谁支付的?<br />
**证人和被害人的精神状态如何?<br />
**证人的陈述是基于证人和被害人自己的观察还是基于耳闻的信息?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词收集是否符合法律规定?证词的收集是否通过刑讯逼供,强迫诱供,欺骗或其他某种非法手段获取?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词是否能相互印证?如果不能,矛盾出现在何处?这些矛盾之处对当事人有帮助还是有损害?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词与被告人的供述是否一致?和同案犯的供述是否一致?如果不一致,矛盾出现在哪里?这些矛盾之处对当事人有帮助还是有损害?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''物证'''<br />
**警方是如何取得证据的?<br />
**出示的搜查证是否有效?<br />
**是否有所有扣押物品的详细清单?清单上所列物件是否和控方所掌握的证据吻合?<br />
**与案件相关的证据掌握情况如何?<br />
**该证据是否有不止一种的解释?<br />
**收集的是原始证据还是传来证据?<br />
**证据是否易被破坏或者较为稳定?如果易破坏,是否尝试了用恰当措施来妥善保管?<br />
**是否因为时间、环境或其他因素而导致证据产生变化?<br />
**如果通过拍照或录象来采集证据,是否有至少两人参与拍照和录象?拍摄人或录象人是否做到准确记录证据?<br />
**证据是否已得到核实证明?证据是否能够在辩护中站稳脚跟?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''书证'''<br />
**出示的搜查证是否有效?<br />
**是否有扣押物证的详细清单?清单所列的书证是否与控方的证据相一致?<br />
**与案件相关的书证掌握情况如何?<br />
**这些文件是否有不止一种理解? <br />
**这些文件是否属实或是捏造的?<br />
**文件上的署名和印章是否完整和属实?<br />
**如果这些文件是复制的或是影印的,为何原件不能使用?是否至少有两人在场情况下复制或影印?该案件是否牵涉到文件复制或影印人的利益?署名或印章是否属实和有效?<br />
**复印或影印的版本是否完全和原件一致?<br />
**复印件或影印件是否经核查属实?<br />
**如果公安机关或检察机关扣押了邮件或电报,其途径是否合乎刑诉法111的规定?是否是由邮电机关检查并递交这些物件?是否存在伪造或是改变或替代扣押的邮件或电报的可能性?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''专家鉴定'''<br />
**专家是否获得法律许可来进行鉴定?<br />
**专家审查了哪些证据?<br />
**他们各自的专业领域是什么?<br />
**他或她做了多长时间的专家?<br />
**专家资历如何?他或她是否被批准有资格成为专家鉴定人?<br />
**专家是否能胜任本职工作?专家是否采用符合国家或本行业规定的方法和技术?专家在开展鉴定过程中是否使用现代科学技术?鉴定是否超过本行业范畴,超出该司法鉴定机构的技术能力和评估能力以外?<br />
**作为专家推导出鉴定结论基础的这些材料是否充分并真实?这些材料是否可以用来鉴定,评估或者与鉴定要求有矛盾,冲突之处?<br />
**考虑是否需要向辩护专家建议开展一个独立的证据核查工作。<br />
**你的当事人有无身体或精神损伤是需要专家进行鉴定解释的?如果有,向法庭请求专家对当事人的身体或精神状况进行鉴定。向专家提供所有相关的医疗记录。提供当事人的社会履历为专家鉴定所用<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''证人的性格特征及案发现场'''<br />
**查阅目击证人的口供时,可以将重点集中在表格中列举的几个方面,个性特征可以帮助缩小辩护律师的调查范围,帮助辩护律师找出证人证词中的优势和薄弱环节。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''表中内容影响到证人对案件的观察。'''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| border="1"<br />
|'''证人性格特征'''<br />
|'''案发现场环境'''<br />
|-<br />
|性别<br />
|光线强弱<br />
|-<br />
|智力<br />
|白天或夜晚<br />
|-<br />
|记忆力<br />
|白天或夜晚的具体时间<br />
|-<br />
|教育背景<br />
|月光<br />
|-<br />
|工作经历<br />
|雨<br />
|-<br />
|使用语言<br />
|雾<br />
|-<br />
|说话障碍<br />
|冷度<br />
|-<br />
|年龄<br />
|热度<br />
|-<br />
|性格<br />
|人数<br />
|-<br />
|思维状况<br />
|目睹案件的时间长度<br />
|-<br />
|身体健康状况<br />
|看见在场所有人和他们活动的实际能力<br />
|-<br />
|(饮)酒量<br />
|凶器<br />
|-<br />
|因为服用药物或非法毒品而造成的损伤<br />
|自然植物<br />
|-<br />
|视力<br />
|建筑物<br />
|-<br />
|听力<br />
|汽车<br />
|-<br />
|与被害人的关系<br />
|交通环境<br />
|-<br />
|与被告的关系<br />
|观察角度(位置)<br />
|-<br />
|与同案犯的关系<br />
|俯视(观察角度)<br />
|-<br />
|动机<br />
|仰视<br />
|-<br />
|袒护当事人,被害人及同案犯或持有偏见<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|被害人或证人<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|在案件发生之前,之中和之后是否因此受到威胁<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===辩护意见及故事陈述===<br />
<br />
<br />
'''介绍:'''<br />
<br />
在调查与出庭的准备过程中,刑事辩护律师应当逐渐构建一套辩护意见,并不断修正。辩护意见由三部分构成:相关法律、事实与感情。在法庭上,刑事辩护律师会使用辩护意见来讲述被告的故事。讲故事亦有三部分:一份总体辩护意见、若干支持此意见的分题以及当庭的演讲。不同的声调、发问的节奏速度、肢体语言、眼神交流与各类修辞技巧的应用都是讲述故事过程的组成部分。由此,刑事辩护律师可通过其陈述营造充满悬念与吸引力的氛围,建立自己的辩护情境。法庭将在此情境下评估案件证据。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''实行:'''<br />
<br />
#刑事辩护律师应当构建一份能够围绕被告人最高利益与其现实情况的总体辩护意见,以便有助于在辩护过程中对各种选择做出评估。<br />
#援助律师应当允许辩护意见决定案件调查与备案过程的侧重,挖掘并扩展因辩护意见而成形的事实与证据。但是,援助律师不应成为其辩护意见的“囚徒”。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''辩护意见工作表:'''<br />
<br />
下述问题将有助于援助律师建造一份完整且通顺的辩护意见:<br />
<br />
#你的辩护意见是什么?(如:无罪、不在场见证人、身份指认有误)<br />
#你为何认为这是最佳的辩护意见?<br />
#相关法律是什么?所指控罪名的构成要件是什么?你的辩护意见如何证明被告无罪?<br />
#哪些事实是你所不能改变,但必须在辩护意见中面对并解释的?<br />
#哪些事实最有利于被告方?<br />
#此案件最重要的感情主题是什么?<br />
#原告方最可能在其指控中利用哪些感情主题?你的辩护意见与主题将如何应对这些感情主题?<br />
#列出原告方提供的主要证人,并在每个证人的名字后标明你准备如何询问此人。最后,再简略地指出此询问的风格。<br />
#列出被告方将提供的主要证人,并在每个证人的名字后标明你准备如何向此人提问。最后,再简略地指出此提问的风格。<br />
#列出你直接询问被告时希望实现的目标。被告的证词将如何强化你的辩护意见?<br />
#你还需要作哪些调查才能建立你的辩护意见?<br />
#你必须解决哪些证据问题?这些证据问题倾向于强化还是削弱你的辩护意见?你将如何解释那些与辩护意见不协调的证据?<br />
#为你的辩护意见找到一句有效的概括。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''讲故事:在法庭上考验你的辩护意见与主题'''<br />
<br />
想有效地辩护,必须懂得讲故事。能够对法官们讲出更动人或可信的故事,就能更好地说服他们;而这些法官将决定案件的事实。每个故事都需要剧情才能紧凑。在辩护中,剧情就是能最好地解释事实的辩护意见。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''为什么援助律师应当向法庭讲故事?'''<br />
<br />
讲故事允许援助律师铺设背景舞台,介绍人物,营造气氛,并搭建一具精心修剪的框架,来影响每个法官看待案件的视角。假如没有这种框架,法官们将依据原告方的意见理解证据与证词。而假如能成功建造框架,援助律师就可以用被告的经历来左右法官们的想象,由此引导多数法官根据被告的经历背景来理解证据。<br />
更重要的是,讲故事可以使法官们用心与感情来琢磨被告的辩护,而不仅用理智。“用理智相信的人”更容易改变判断,因为他们通常以这种思路反思与分析:“我的意见是基于逻辑的。所以,假如你(理智地)指出我的问题,我就会考虑改变意见。”而“用心与感情相信的人”会以另一种思路反思与分析:“我是对的,你是错的,所以你必须改变你的观点。”这些人是你在法庭上最有力的盟友。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''用有效的语言讲故事:'''<br />
<br />
下面列出了一些建议,帮助你判断在陈述被告方的辩护意见时应该使用何种语言,或该避免何种语言。<br />
<br />
#讲故事的语言与律师通常使用的语言有明显区别。与在酒吧里相识的朋友讲话时使用何种语言,讲故事时就应使用何种语言。<br />
#准确地使用语言—所表达的应与你意图表达的完全一致。<br />
#要把法律词汇与抽象的概念翻译成清晰、通俗、简单的语言。<br />
#使用有力的语言:<br />
##避免有保留含义的词汇或短语,如“我认为”,“我相信”,“我会试图证明……”。<br />
##使用主动语态。<br />
##尽量依赖名词与动词达意。<br />
##避免无意的迟疑与无用的动词停顿。<br />
##使用拥有恰当感情内容与号召的语言。<br />
#使用生动的预言:<br />
##使用坚实而不抽象的语言。<br />
##使用精准而非泛泛的语言。<br />
##用语言描绘生动的意象:<br />
#在脑中将你要描述的事物形象化,并当庭描绘这些形象。<br />
#使事件细节形象化的能力会赋予你强大的说服力。<br />
#使用语言意象优于主观地使用抽象且空泛的词语。<br />
#语句长短应有变化,但同时应非常偏爱短句子。书面语句通常比口述语句长。<br />
#不要看稿演说:这样会使讲故事的优势荡然无存。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''结论:'''<br />
<br />
建造一套辩护意见要求援助律师能客观地批评指控方的陈词,并依据法律、事实、与感情构思一个动人的故事来反驳这份陈词。辩护意见会影响案件的调查、出庭的证人、与当庭的论证。通过讲述一个合理且有力的故事,援助律师可以说服法官们相信被告无罪,或应从轻处理,或应免刑。<br />
<br />
<br />
===各种辩护策略===<br />
<br />
<br />
'''介绍'''<br />
<br />
在构建辩护意见的过程中,刑辩律师必须判断是否能替被告开脱罪名。假如能够做到这点,还需考虑该如何向法官们证明被告无罪。下面列举了一些在中国法律框架下,可能为被告开脱的辩护方法,并指出了它们适用于何种情节。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''控诉方应承担举证责任'''<br />
<br />
应当记住,被告人享有无罪推定的权利。未经人民法院依法判决,对任何人不得确定有罪(刑事诉讼法第12条)。在刑事案件中,检察官有责任承担对被告所控罪名的举证责任。这意味着检察官必须证明该指控事实清楚且证据充分。<br />
<br />
<br />
[[媒体:各种辩护策略.doc]]<br />
<br />
===鉴定人===<br />
<br />
<br />
'''介绍'''<br />
<br />
'''法律允许刑事辩护人:'''<br />
<br />
向法庭申请寻求鉴定人进行鉴定(刑事诉讼法第128条)<br />
<br />
鉴定结论应当由侦查机关告知(刑事诉讼法148条)<br />
<br />
请求法庭批准进行重新鉴定或辅助性的补充鉴定(刑事诉讼法147,148条)<br />
<br />
庭审时对鉴定人的交叉询问(刑事诉讼法第194条)<br />
<br />
请求法庭在庭审期间重新鉴定(刑事诉讼法第197条)<br />
<br />
<br />
在中国的民事案件受理中鉴定人被广泛地接受,同样,鉴定人在刑事案件中也越来越频繁地使用。以下的信息将帮助你判断,何时聘请一名专家,通常在何种案件中需要一名专家的协助以及如何质疑令人疑惑的鉴定意见等问题。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''在何时,你应当考虑聘请一名鉴定人?'''<br />
<br />
<br />
刑事辩护人应当在遇到以下必要情况时设法获得专家的帮助:<br />
(A)为辩护准备<br />
(B)阅读并理解控方证据<br />
(C)反驳控方证据<br />
(D)调查当事人是否具有刑事责任能力和当时的精神状态<br />
<br />
<br />
'''什么样的问题需要专家的帮助?'''<br />
<br />
<br />
根据中国刑事诉讼法第146条,“为了查明案情,需要解决案件中某些专门性问题的时候,应当指派,聘请有关专门知识的人进行鉴定。”虽然在第146法条中对某些专门性问题没有界定,但是专家常常可以解释一些普通人理解上有问题的复杂问题。 <br />
<br />
专家鉴定可能包括,但不仅限于以下范围:有适用于法庭的鉴定,对伤口进行法医鉴定,对精神病的法医鉴定,财产的估价,对古董的鉴定,稀有动植物和从中提取制成的产品的鉴定,对禁用品和危险品进行评估,还有对电表数据进行测定。在获得人民法院同意之后,司法鉴定部门对可以作为证据的材料,如检验报告,医药记录,会计报表等进行调查分析。 <br />
<br />
因而,在被害人死亡或受伤原因不明或有争议的案件中,获取专家协助是很有价值的。如在与被告人精神状况相关的任何一个案件中;在涉及到被偷盗的物件价值,相关材料或记录的真实性,药品或其他物质的化学组成,起因不明的火灾,意外事故或其他事件,血迹,精液,其他体液,毛发,纤维或指纹来源不明的案件中;通过鉴定专家可以来帮助法庭来理解所要讨论问题的案件。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''鉴定专家是出庭作证,还是提供咨询?'''<br />
<br />
<br />
在做出这个选择时,首先应弄清这两类专家的不同。出庭作证的专家是会到法庭上来并为辩护作证,或者在他的鉴定结果基础上编写辩护意见。刑事辩护律师必须争取法庭的同意,才能让证人出庭作证或出示其所获得的证据。同时,刑事辩护律师也可以在辩护中向法院提议需要聘请鉴定人来澄清事实真相,他也可以请求延长庭审时间,这样专家就有足够的时间进行鉴定。<br />
提供咨询的专家,另一方面,是一名帮助刑事辩护律师理解复杂问题但不出庭作证的专家。刑事辩护律师不需要获得法庭的同意,才可以和咨询专家交流意见。那么,提供咨询的鉴定专家是如何协助刑事辩护律师的呢? <br />
#协助律师编写辩护意见并用富有说服力的方式将事件的各个片段串联在一起形成一段叙述性的故事<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师删除不必要的信息,以免偏离辩护意见的主题或者带来过分复杂冗繁的案情陈述(专家协助律师准备在出庭时使用的专家鉴定,使其内容完备和具有说服力,但不会过于复杂)<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师编写一个语言流畅、组织有序的辩护词,避免辩护中牵涉到太多的鉴定人或太过复杂的专家证词<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师挑选出一名有能力的鉴定人,可以很好地论证,用简单明了而又具有说服力的方式讲述被告人的故事<br />
#帮助刑事辩护律师与同领域的其他专家或相关领域的专家建立良好的工作关系<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师批判性地评估和展开辩论,揭示控方鉴定人鉴定中的弱点和逻辑上不吻合之处<br />
<br />
对法律援助律师来说,最好选择具有学术背景的专家(不论是出庭的还是提供咨询的鉴定人),比如说研究性的和培训性的大学中的人员。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''选择一个鉴定人时,你需要考虑哪些因素?'''<br />
<br />
<br />
选择鉴定人,有很多需要考虑的重要问题,但是基本的原则是作为一个科学家,鉴定人应当更注重过程和事件的进展而非结果。因而,当刑事辩护律师评定某人是否具有专业素养和丰富经验,聘请其为鉴定人时,应当考虑以下几个方面的问题:<br />
<br />
*该鉴定人是否接受过一定程度的教育,在某一专业领域有足够的经验?<br />
*该鉴定人在专业领域的名誉如何?他在该领域受到其他专家何种程度的尊重?<br />
*你所受理的案件需要何种类型的专家?<br />
*该鉴定人是否仍在接受教育?<br />
*正常情况下,该鉴定人在自己的专业领域中投入多少时间?除在专业领域工作外,他是否还有其他的工作?<br />
*该鉴定人先前是否为被告人,被害人等提供过专家鉴定证词?这份证词与你受理案件中的事实是否相吻合?<br />
<br />
刑事辩护律师不是科学家,因而他不可能如鉴定人一样具备某一特定领域专业知识。然而,律师应当遵循客观准则并力求鉴定人结论的客观性,科学性和说服力。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''你是否需要获得法庭的批准才可以聘请一位鉴定人?'''<br />
<br />
<br />
前面也提到了,你需要获得法庭的批准才可以聘请一位出庭鉴定人(出庭鉴定人是你希望他出庭作证或在庭审期间引用他的鉴定结果)。不过,如果你仅是想确保你理解案情,你可以不需要通过法庭同意,就可以和提供咨询的律师进行交流。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''法庭能否安排进行鉴定?'''<br />
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可以,中国刑事诉讼法第128条规定法院有权组织开展鉴定“当需要解决案件中的特殊问题以便能让案情结果澄清时”,另外,刑事诉讼法第196条,容许法庭开展专家鉴定“当需要开展调查以核实证据时”,刑事诉讼法第196条指出这种情况的适用条款“当合议庭对证据有疑问时,可以宣布休庭”。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''新通过的鉴定决定的变化'''<br />
<br />
根据全国人民代表大会常务委员会关于司法鉴定管理问题的决定(2015),“司法鉴定是指在诉讼活动中鉴定人运用科学技术或者专门知识对诉讼涉及的专门性问题进行鉴别和判断并提供鉴定意见的活动”。<br />
<br />
司法鉴定的机构、人员条件以及登记管理程序,在《决定》中都有了进一步的规定,律师聘请鉴定人时,应仔细甄别聘请的人员是否符合《决定》要求的条件。特别注意<br />
<br />
• 适用的对象目前只包括四类鉴定事项:法医类、物证类、声像资料类,以及根据诉讼需要由国务院司法行政部门商最高人民法院、最高人民检察院确定的其他应当对鉴定人和鉴定机构实行登记管理的鉴定事项。<br />
<br />
• 侦查机关根据侦查工作的需要设立的鉴定机构,不得面向社会接受委托从事司法鉴定业务。人民法院和司法行政部门不得设立鉴定机构。<br />
<br />
• 各鉴定机构之间没有隶属关系,鉴定机构接受委托从事司法鉴定业务,不受地域范围的限制。鉴定人应当在一个鉴定机构中执业。<br />
<br />
• 诉讼中,鉴定事项应当委托列入鉴定人名册的鉴定人进行鉴定。<br />
<br />
• 鉴定人应当按照诉讼法的规定,实行回避。诉讼中,当事人对鉴定意见有异议的,经人民法院依法通知,鉴定人应当出庭作证。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''你能否对法庭作出的鉴定结果或控方授权开展的鉴定提出质疑?'''<br />
<br />
是的,刑事辩护律师对法庭进行的鉴定或控方的鉴定提出质疑有多种途径,如下所示:<br />
<br />
1. 鉴定申请的拒绝-开展鉴定的一方应当承担起由于陈述的错误或信息不完备而导致鉴定报告错误的责任。另外,中国刑事诉讼法第 147 条规定“如果鉴定人故意作虚假鉴定的,应当承担法律责任”。<br />
<br />
2. 重新鉴定—中国刑事诉讼法第 148 及 197 条允许犯罪嫌疑人或被告人请求进行重新鉴定。重新鉴定的物件必须和首次鉴定的相同。对不同的物件进行鉴定时,不应视其为重新鉴定。最初的鉴定机构可以开展所有的重新鉴定,除了在第一类中提到的应当由其他机构开展的鉴定。<br />
<br />
3. 补充鉴定—中国刑事诉讼法第 148 条对补充鉴定进行了规定。这种鉴定发生前提条件是,在新的鉴定物件被发现后或某些物件被不恰当地排除在最初的鉴定物件行列中<br />
<br />
<br />
'''结论'''<br />
<br />
鉴定人可以为刑事辩护律师提供宝贵的帮助,通过帮助律师理解复杂的科学难题,评估。对真实性的考验和其他专业性极强的问题,通过帮助他们整合这些复杂的信息使它们易于理解和极富说服力。另外,专家可以帮助刑事辩护律师对控方证据的弱点提出批判性的质疑,从而形成可以成功反驳控方证据的辩护意见。鉴定人应当被看作辩护律师团体中重要的成员,他们的才智和经验可以被运用到解释控方所掌握的犯罪事实为何不准确的辩护中来。</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China_Criminal_Defense_Manual_-_Developing_a_Defense_for_Trial/zh&diff=381092China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial/zh2023-09-10T04:35:53Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial}}<br />
<br />
== 与当事人会谈时,律师需要考虑的问题 ==<br />
<br />
如何利用与当事人面谈收集到的信息来进行辩护,下列问题也许会对你有所<br />
帮助。<br />
=== 被告人有没有共同被告人?(共同被告人指起诉罪名与被告人相同的人) === <br />
<br />
*如果有,获取尽可能多的关于共同被告人的信息,包括他们的犯罪前科。<br />
*考虑一下,让被告人做证反对共同被告是否对被告人本人有利,以便换取被告人被释放或使被告获得较轻的判决。<br />
*要意识到共同被告人可能会做出不利于被告人的证词。<br />
*要意识到共同被告人可能会把被告人告诉他/她的事情告诉当局。警告被告人不要就案件与共同被告人交谈或任何律师和调查者以外的人。<br />
<br />
=== 公安机关逮捕或拘留被告人的程序是否符合法律规定? ===<br />
<br />
*是否出示逮捕证或拘留证。<br />
*被告人家人是否在24小时内告知当事人的逮捕或拘留,并通知拘禁地点。<br />
<br />
=== 被告人是否向警方做了供述? ===<br />
<br />
*被告人被逮捕或拘留24小时之内是否受到审讯?(刑事诉讼法:第 86 条)<br />
*在场是否有至少两名审讯人员?(刑事诉讼法:第118条)<br />
*被告人供述一般包括哪些主要内容?<br />
*关押或审讯期间是否对被告人施行了高压、威胁、拷问或其他残忍、非人性或卑鄙的手段及惩罚方式?如果供述是非法取得的,要考虑提出申诉。<br />
*是否完整记录了讯问?被告人犯有可判处无期徒刑、死刑的犯罪或者其他重大刑事案件的,必须通过录音或者录像记录在案。(刑事诉讼法:第 123 条)<br />
*讯问笔录是否经过被告人的查阅并签字?(刑事诉讼法:第122条)<br />
*被告人的供述是口头的、书面的、录音或拍摄下来的?设法取得供<br />
述的一份复印件?<br />
*被告人是否自己书写了个人供述?<br />
<br />
=== 警方有没有对被告人身体的生理分泌物取样? ===<br />
<br />
*警方有没有对被告人身体的生理分泌物取样,比如血液、呼吸器官、尿或精液?如果有的话,设法取得医学检测报告。<br />
*主动保存取样和考虑对被告人的生理分泌物重新进行检测。<br />
*公安机关是否带走其他和犯罪有关的物品?<br />
*有无获取物证?是否有搜查证?是否对搜查做了全程记录?是否列出搜查所得物证的相关目录?<br />
<br />
=== 辩护是什么? ===<br />
<br />
*如果有证人可以证明被告人不在案发现场,设法取得该证人的姓名、地址及电话号码等信息,让一名调查者立即与证人联系。<br />
*如果被告人声称自己的行为是自卫、紧急避险行为,并因此而受伤,要立即拍下相关的照片。(刑法:第 20, 21 条)<br />
*查明起诉方证人(包括受害人)是否可以信赖,比如他们是否有犯 罪记录?被告人的社会关系是否较差?受害人是否已获得赔偿?如果是,赔偿的金额,何时,何人支付?如果被告人声称第三者实施了犯罪行为,尽可能找到更多的细节,让一名调查者查明被告人所称是否属实。<br />
<br />
=== 被告人是否需要鉴定? ===<br />
<br />
*被告人是否需要精神或身体鉴定?是否需要专家或一名神经科专家进行相应的鉴定?<br />
<br />
=== 被告人以前是否被定过罪?===<br />
<br />
*有犯罪前科可能会加长被告人判刑的年限。立即查找、设法取得有关被告以前犯罪记录的复印件。<br />
<br />
=== 被告人是否被关押? ===<br />
<br />
*看被告人能否获得取保候审,律师应掌握所需要的材料,帮助被告人取保候审,包括可能的保证人和可作取保候审的财产。<br />
<br />
== 辩护律师阅卷 ==<br />
<br />
*阅卷权是指辩护律师在诉讼活动中有权查阅办案机关制作或者掌握的案件卷宗材料。在我国刑事诉讼过程中,公、检、法机关进行的每一步诉讼活动都要在卷宗记明,相关证据与程序步骤均需在案卷中全面、如实的记载,案卷是公安、司法人员处理案件的基本依据,也是律师进行辩护的重要参考凭据。《刑事诉讼法》第四十条规定,辩护律师自人民检察院对案件审查起诉之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案的卷宗材料。根据刑事诉讼法第 186 条规定,人民法院对提起公诉的案件进行审查后,对于起诉书中有明确的指控犯罪事实的,应当决定开庭审判。<br />
<br />
*根据最高人民法院适用《中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法》的解释(2021) 第五十四条,辩护律师申请查阅的讯问录音录像,人民法院应当准许。从辩护实践来看,在上述诉讼文书与材料中,律师首先应当查阅的文件为起诉意见书,因为起诉意见书是侦查机关经过对案件侦查所形成的总结性材料,是侦查机关向检察机关移送起诉的依据,侦查机关指控犯罪嫌疑人的主要事实集中反映在起诉意见书中,辩护律师查阅后,可以对犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的案情有一个概括的了解。<br />
<br />
在律师进行阅卷的过程中,有个具体问题值得注意:《人民检察院刑事诉讼规 则》(2019)第四十九条进一步要求检察院公诉部门,对于律师要求查阅、摘 抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料的,受理后应当安排办理;不能当日 办理的,应当向律师说明理由,并在 3 日内择定日期,及时通知律师。另外,辩护人复制案卷材料可以采取复印、拍照、扫描、刻录等方式,相关办案部门不得收取费用。<br />
<br />
== 辩护律师调查取证 ==<br />
<br />
=== 法律背景 ===<br />
<br />
中国法律允许刑事辩护律师采取以下行为:<br />
#审查起诉后查阅诉讼文书。(刑事诉讼法:第40条)<br />
#进行独立调查,对公安机关和检察机关搜集的证据予以核实 (刑事诉讼法:第 41 条)<br />
#对专家证人的证词进行评估 (刑事诉讼法:第 148 条)<br />
#从证人和受害人那里获取独立的陈述 (刑事诉讼法:第 43 条)<br />
<br />
为帮助你对与案件有关的证据进行调查,下列问题是很好的建议:<br />
<br />
*行动要迅速<br />
**最好尽快启动调查<br />
**拖延可能导致失去物证<br />
**证人容易记起刚刚发生的事件<br />
<br />
*注意防范风险<br />
**两人进行<br />
**取证后,请被取证人签名<br />
**建议全程录音<br />
**侦查阶段不要调查取证,一是因为法律没有明确准许;二是其取得证据的证明能力,可能遭到法官的质疑 <br />
**最好是申请公、检、法机关取证<br />
<br />
*容易获取的信息来源<br />
**起诉意见书<br />
**合法调查<br />
**同案犯的供述 <br />
**与当事人会谈 <br />
**证人<br />
**鉴定结论<br />
<br />
*案发现场<br />
**如允许与可能,尽快到案发现场勘查<br />
**利用素描、图表、拍照、录像带,测量等方式记录案发现场的证据 <br />
**寻找未被收集的证据<br />
**确定证人并记录将来与他们取得联系的方式<br />
**寻找警方没有访问的证人<br />
<br />
*证人<br />
**会见证人至少需要有除律师以外的另一个人在场,全国律协建议2人以上<br />
**记录会见当事人的录像带,磁带<br />
**证人是否具有提供证词的能力?生理上、精神上有缺陷或者年幼,不能辨别是非、不能正确表达的人都不能作为证人(中华人民共和国刑事诉 讼法第 62 条)<br />
**如有可能,会见起诉方的证人(刑事诉讼法:第41条) <br />
**会见目击证人<br />
**运用你的个性,感染不愿作证的证人,说服其予以配合 <br />
**与证人的交谈要在安全、舒适的环境中进行<br />
**记录证人的背景资料及当前的工作情况<br />
**如果证人不愿意接受询问的,可以向人民检察院或者人民法院申请安排<br />
调取相关证据。 (《律师办理刑事案件规范》第 38 条)<br />
<br />
*证人和被害人陈述<br />
**有没有用录像带或磁带录下证人和被害人的陈述?<br />
**警方摘录了证人和被害人陈述中的哪部分内容?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词是证人和被害人自己亲笔写的吗?<br />
**证人和被害人提供证词的动机是什么?该案件是否牵涉到证人的利益?<br />
**被害人是否受伤?被害人是否提供有关他受伤程度的具体信息?<br />
**被害人和被告人之间是什么关系?证人和被告人之间?证人和被害人之间? <br />
**被害人是否得到某种赔偿?如果有,何时,多少以及谁支付的?<br />
**证人和被害人的精神状态如何?<br />
**证人的陈述是基于证人和被害人自己的观察还是基于耳闻的信息?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词收集是否符合法律规定?证词的收集是否通过刑讯逼供,强迫诱供,欺骗或其他某种非法手段获取?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词是否能相互印证?如果不能,矛盾出现在何处?这些矛盾之处对当事人有帮助还是有损害?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词与被告人的供述是否一致?和同案犯的供述是否一致?如果不一致,矛盾出现在哪里?这些矛盾之处对当事人有帮助还是有损害?<br />
<br />
*物证<br />
**警方是如何取得证据的? <br />
**出示的搜查证是否有效?<br />
**是否有所有扣押物品的详细清单?清单上所列物件是否和控方所掌握的 证据吻合?(刑事诉讼法:第 141 条)<br />
**与案件相关的证据掌握情况如何?<br />
**该证据是否有不止一种的解释?<br />
**收集的是原始证据还是传来证据?<br />
**证据是否易被破坏或者较为稳定?如果易破坏,是否尝试了用恰当措施来妥善保管?<br />
**是否因为时间、环境或其他因素而导致证据产生变化?<br />
**如果通过拍照或录像来采集证据,是否有至少两人参与拍照和录象?拍摄人或录像人是否做到准确记录证据?<br />
**证据是否已得到核实证明?证据是否能够在辩护中站稳脚跟?<br />
<br />
*书证<br />
**出示的搜查证是否有效?<br />
**是否有扣押物证的详细清单?清单所列的书证是否与控方的证据相一致?<br />
**与案件相关的书证掌握情况如何?<br />
**这些文件是否有不止一种理解?<br />
**这些文件是否属实或是捏造的?<br />
**文件上的署名和印章是否完整和属实?<br />
**证据是原始的吗?只有当其原始形式无法访问或在当局手中时,才允许复制。(公安机关办理刑事案件程序规定(2020 年修订版)第 64条)如果这些文件是复制的或是影印的,为何原件不能使用?<br />
**复印或影印的版本是否由二人以上制作?(关于适用《中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法》的解释,最高人民法院(2021),第 82 条) 复制或影印文件的人是否与案件有关?签名或印章是否真实有效?<br />
**副本或复印件是否与原件完全相同?<br />
**复印件或影印件是否经核查属实?<br />
**如果公安机关或检察机关扣押了邮件或电报,其途径是否合乎刑诉法143 的规定?是否是由邮电机关检查并递交这些物件?是否存在伪造或是改变或替代扣押的邮件或电报的可能性?<br />
<br />
*专家鉴定<br />
**作为其案件的证据,侦查机关是否将专家鉴定的意见告知被告人?(刑事诉讼法:第 148 条)<br />
**专家是否获得法律许可来进行鉴定? o 专家审查了哪些证据?<br />
**他们各自的专业领域是什么?<br />
**他或她做了多长时间的专家?<br />
**专家资历如何?他或她是否被批准有资格成为专家鉴定人?<br />
**专家是否能胜任本职工作?专家是否采用符合国家或本行业规定的方法和技术?专家在开展鉴定过程中是否使用现代科学技术?鉴定是否超过本行业范畴,超出该司法鉴定机构的技术能力和评估能力以外?<br />
**作为专家推导出鉴定结论基础的这些材料是否充分并真实?这些材料是否可以用来鉴定,评估或者与鉴定要求有矛盾,冲突之处?<br />
**考虑是否需要向辩护专家建议开展一个独立的证据核查工作。刑事辩护律师可以申请法庭通知有专门知识的人出庭,就鉴定人作出的鉴定意见提出意见。(刑事诉讼法:第 197 条)<br />
**你的当事人有无身体或精神损伤是需要专家进行鉴定解释的?如果有,向法庭请求专家对当事人的身体或精神状况进行鉴定。向专家提供所有相关的医疗记录。提供当事人的社会履历为专家鉴定所用。<br />
<br />
*证人的性格特征及案发现场<br />
**查阅目击证人的口供时,可以将重点集中在表格中列举的几个方面,个性特征可以帮助缩小辩护律师的调查范围,帮助辩护律师找出证人证词中的优势和薄弱环节。表中内容影响到证人对案件的观察。<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! 证人性格特征 !! 案发现场环境<br />
|-<br />
| 性别 || 光线强弱<br />
|-<br />
| 智力 || 白天或夜晚<br />
|-<br />
| 记忆力 || 白天或夜晚的具体时间<br />
|-<br />
| 教育背景 || 月光<br />
|-<br />
| 工作经历 || 雨<br />
|-<br />
| 使用语言 || 雾<br />
|-<br />
| 说话障碍 || 冷度<br />
|-<br />
| 年龄 || 热度<br />
|-<br />
| 性格 || 人数<br />
|-<br />
| 思维状况 || 目睹案件的时间长度<br />
|-<br />
| 身体健康状况 || 看见在场所有人和他们活动的实际能力<br />
|-<br />
| (饮)酒量 || 凶器<br />
|-<br />
| 因为服用药物或非法毒品而造成的损伤 || 自然植物<br />
|-<br />
| 视力 || 建筑物<br />
|-<br />
| 听力 || 汽车<br />
|-<br />
| 与被害人的关系 || 交通环境<br />
|-<br />
| 与被告人的关系 || 观察角度(位置)<br />
|-<br />
| 与同案犯的关系 || 俯视(观察角度)<br />
|-<br />
| 动机 || 仰视<br />
|-<br />
| 袒护当事人,被害人及同案犯或持有偏见 || <br />
|-<br />
| 被害人或证人 || <br />
|-<br />
| 在案件发生之前,之中和之后是否因此受到威胁 || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
== 各种辩护策略 ==<br />
<br />
=== '''介绍'''===<br />
<br />
在构建辩护意见的过程中,刑辩律师必须判断是否能替被告人开脱罪名。假如能够做到这点,还需考虑该如何向法官们证明被告人无罪。下面列举了一些在中国法律框架下,可能为被告人开脱的辩护方法,并指出了它们适用于何种情节。<br />
<br />
'''控诉方应承担举证责任'''<br />
<br />
应当记住,被告人享有无罪推定的权利。未经人民法院依法判决,对任何人不得确定有罪(刑事诉讼法第 12 条)。在刑事案件中,检察官有责任承担对被告人所控罪名的举证责任。这意味着检察官必须证明该指控事实清楚且证据充分。<br />
<br />
'''指控方是否已履行其举证责任?'''<br />
<br />
在提出其他辩护之前,刑事辩护律师应该批判性地分析控方起诉书,以认定案件中指控的犯罪到底发生与否。假如有,又应考虑指控方所提供的证据是否足以支撑他们提出的罪名。若指控为另一罪名(更轻的罪名),是否更符合案件证据情况?下面是一些应该思考的问题:<br />
<br />
所指控的罪名有哪些构成要件?例如:<br />
<br />
主动行为:被告人是否自发地实施了行为?控诉方提供了哪些证据来证明被告人是自主行为?<br />
<br />
主观状态:在什么样的意图驱使之下,被告人的行为才构成犯罪?(比如:故意、过失)该罪名是否属于严格责任原则罪名(即控诉方不必要对被告人行动意图举证)?检察官提供了哪些证据来证明<br />
被告人行为发生时必须有的意图、必须掌握的某方面知识技能、或存在的过失?<br />
<br />
因果关系:被告人的行为是否导致了最终的损害?<br />
<br />
直接原因:被告人的行为离指控罪名甚远,不应承担该罪名的法律责任?<br />
<br />
法律义务:在此种情况下,法律是否规定被告人需按照某种特定方式行使特殊的法律义务?<br />
<br />
哪些法律规定了罪名的构成要件?这些法律之间有无矛盾?<br />
<br />
指控方是否本应提出更轻的罪名?<br />
<br />
所指控罪名的各个构成要件各需要多强的证据才能成立?应指控罪名的构成要件情况如何?<br />
<br />
现有的证据是否能满足所指控罪名各要件的证据要求?指控罪名中的各个要件的证据要求又如何?哪些证据支持控方起诉意见?哪些证据与控方起诉意见不符?<br />
<br />
假如控方没有提供足够的证据来支撑他指控的罪名,甚至不能支撑本应提出的较轻罪名,刑事辩护律师就应当庭指出这些问题,并要求法庭判被告人无罪或指控罪名不成立。<br />
<br />
=== '''被告人的行为是否构成犯罪?'''===<br />
<br />
另一个要考虑的重要问题是被告人的行为是否可以构成某种犯罪。刑法第13 条提供了“犯罪”的定义:“情节显著轻微危害不大的,不认为是犯罪”此外,刑法第 16 条规定:“行为在客观上虽然造成了损害结果,但是不是出于故意或者过失,而是由于不能抗拒或者不能预见的原因所引起的,不是犯罪。”假如 13 条或 16 条规定的情况成立,援助律师就应该要求法庭宣判无罪,因为法庭无权在被告人行为不构成犯罪的情况下判其有罪。(刑诉法 16(1))<br />
<br />
'''追诉是否超过有效期限?'''<br />
<br />
假如控方追诉已过时效,刑事辩护律师就应根据相关法律,提出追诉时效已过的辩护。刑诉法 16(2)规定:“有下列情形之一的,不追究刑事责任,已经追究的,应当撤销案件,或者不起诉,或者终止审理,或者宣告无罪。犯罪已过追诉时效期限的”<br />
<br />
刑法第 87 条的规定了刑法中的追诉时效:<br />
(一)法定最高刑为不满五年有期徒刑的,经过五年;<br />
(二)法定最高刑为五年以上不满十年有期徒刑的,经过十年;<br />
(三)法定最高刑为十年以上有期徒刑的,经过十五年;<br />
(四)法定最高刑为无期徒刑、死刑的,经过二十年。如果二十年以后认为必须追诉的,须报请最高人民检察院核准。<br />
<br />
在人民检察院、公安机关、国家安全机关立案侦查或者在人民法院受理案件以后,逃避侦查或者审判的,不受追诉期限的限制。被害人在追诉期限<br />
内提出控告,人民法院、人民检察院、公安机关应当立案而不予立案的,不受追诉期限的限制。(刑法第 88 条)<br />
<br />
追诉期限从犯罪之日起计算;犯罪行为有连续或者继续状态的,从犯罪行为终了之日起计算。 在追诉期限以内又犯罪的,前罪追诉的期限从犯后罪之日起计算。(刑法第 89 条)<br />
<br />
'''假如不否认犯罪事实,能否替被告人辩护(肯定性辩护)?'''<br />
<br />
在肯定性辩护中,刑事辩护律师并不否认所指控罪名的各要件确实存在,但依然试图证明被告人无罪。这类辩护要求刑事辩护律师提供足够的证据,无论是证人证词还是实物。在不否认犯罪事实的前提下,这类辩护试图证明被告人的行为是正当的,或提供另一种被法律认可的开脱途径。<br />
<br />
'''是否为被告人进行无罪辩护?'''<br />
<br />
这类辩护是肯定性辩护的一种,目的是证明被告人“我没有犯罪”,即证明被告人不可能犯下案件所涉及的罪行。无罪辩护有两种最常见的角度:证明被告人不在场和从物证角度出发证明犯罪不可能发生。使用第一种策略时,刑事辩护律师能够提供可靠的证据,比如某位现场证人的证词,来证明案发时,被告人不在现场;假如使用第二种策略,援助律师就需要引用可靠证据证明有关被告人的某些物证的局限性,并说明这些局限性如何排除了其犯罪的可能性。例如,被告人被指控用右手刺伤被害人,同时控诉方的证据表明被害人确实是被某人的右手所伤。这种情况下,假如刑事辩护律师能够提供可靠证据证明被告人先前受伤后一直无法使用右手,就可认定被告人不可能犯下所指控罪行。<br />
<br />
=== '''可否为被告人进行正当事由辩护?'''===<br />
<br />
正当事由辩护是肯定性辩护的另一种。进行这种辩护时,被告人虽然并不否认罪行是自己所为,但需要证明自己不应为此行为承担法律责任。被告人的辩护意见会采取“我确实做了,但是……”的形式。被告人由于社会认可或符合道德原则的理由做出犯罪行为。<br />
<br />
1.法律明定的排除违法性事由:正当防卫与紧急避险<br />
<br />
刑法第 20 条定义“正当防卫”为:“为了使国家、公共利益、本人或者他人的人身、财产和其他权利免受正在进行的不法侵害,而采取的制止不法侵害的行为,对不法侵害人造成损害的,属于正当防卫,不负刑事责任。”被告人不需为正当防卫负刑事责任。然而,假如被告人的行为超出了“必要”的范围而造成过于严重的伤害,他就需要负刑事责任,但同时可减刑,甚至免刑。刑法第 20 条规定:“正当防卫明显超过必要限度造成重大损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。 对正在进行行凶、杀人、抢劫、强奸、绑架以及其他严重危及人身安全的暴力犯罪,采取防卫行为,造成不法侵害人伤亡的,不属于防卫过当,不负刑事责任。”<br />
<br />
2.法律所明定的减刑辩护事由<br />
<br />
神经失常:<br />
刑法第 18 条规定:“精神病人在不能辨认或者不能控制自己行为的时候造成危害结果,经法定程序鉴定确认的,不负刑事责任” 假如案发时被告人确实已失去了辨认或控制自身行为的能力,辩护律师必须为其精神失常提供证据。假如控诉方能够证明被告人在案发时神志正常,被告人就必须承担刑事责任。<br />
<br />
减轻责任:<br />
刑法第 18 条又规定:“尚未完全丧失辨认或者控制自己行为能力的精神病人犯罪的,应当负刑事责任,但是可以从轻或者减轻处罚。”即是无法证明被告人在案发时不能辨认或控制自身行为,辩护律师仍然可以引入被告人精神失常的证据(比如无法拥有某种构成犯罪所必需的意图),从而为被告人减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
未成年人:<br />
在未成年辩护中,刑事辩护律师强调被告人因年龄太小而不应负刑事责任。刑法第 17 条规定 16 岁为承担刑事责任的下限。但是,假如被告人已满十四岁不满十六岁,犯故意杀人、故意伤害致人重伤或者死亡、强奸、抢劫、贩卖毒品、放火、爆炸、投放危险物质罪的,被告人应当负刑事责任。此外,十二岁,犯故意杀人、故意伤害罪,致人死亡或者以特别残忍手段致人重伤造成严重残疾,情节恶劣,经最高人民检察院核准追诉的,应当负刑事责任。援助律师可为不足 12 岁的被告人进行未成年辩护,亦可为 12 到 16 岁之间,但所犯罪行不严重的被告人进行未成年辩护。即使被告人已满 12 岁,且犯下严重罪行,假如其心理年龄或智力年龄远低于其实际年龄,援助律师依然可为其进行未成年辩护(比如,被告人有智障,心理年龄只相当于幼儿)。<br />
<br />
3.其他可供参考的辩护事由<br />
<br />
受虐妇女综合症:<br />
虽然某些法庭不承认受虐妇女综合症本身可构成刑事辩护,但是它可以作为其他辩护的辅助证据,比如自我正当防卫辩护、受强迫辩护、等等。因为受虐妇女综合症患者的行动规则异于常人,解释其行为需要有专家作证。有些法庭曾允许使用关于受虐妇女综合症的专家证词来证明被告人没有犯罪意图。<br />
<br />
受逼迫或胁迫辩护:<br />
假如被告人是受他人逼迫或胁迫后才犯下罪行,援助律师就可为其进行受逼迫或胁迫辩护。刑法第 28 条规定:“对于被胁迫参加犯罪的,应当按照他的犯罪情节减轻处罚或者免除处罚。”当一个案件涉及多名被告人,且其中一名有可能受到其他人胁迫时,辩护律师经常会使用这类辩护。<br />
<br />
必要性辩护:<br />
当被告人为了防止更大伤害出现而犯下某些罪行时,可为其进行必要性辩护。刑法第 21 条规定:“为了使国家、公共利益、本人或者他人的人身、财产和其他权利免受正在发生的危险,不得已采取的紧急避险行为,造成损害的,不负刑事责任。紧急避险超过必要限度造成不应有的损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。”与正当防卫的情况类似,假如被告人采取的行为逾越了“必要”范围而造成过大伤害,他就必须承担刑事责任,但可减刑或免刑。21 条的规定不适用于职务或业务上有特定责任之人。<br />
<br />
误解法律/误解事实辩护:<br />
在这类辩护中,刑事辩护律师认为被告人完全不知道其行为构成犯罪。在误解法律辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明:第一,只有在被告人知法且犯法的情况下,所指控罪名才成立;第二,被告人在案发时并不知法。在误解事实辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明:第一,案发时被告人对实际形势理解有误;第二,假如他当时理解无误,就不会犯罪;第三,他的错误理解情有可原。<br />
<br />
政府唆使犯罪/政府误导犯罪刑事辩护:<br />
当被告人受政府官员唆使或误导而犯罪时,可以考虑使用这两类辩护。在官员唆使犯罪的辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明政府官员曾唆使被告人犯罪,而若无此唆使,被告人就不会犯罪。在政府误导性犯罪辩护中,刑事辩护律师必须证明:第一,曾有政府官员告知被告人其行为合法;第二,被告人因相信该信息才犯下罪行;第三,被告人的轻信情有可原。综述以上三点,就可认定被告人不该承担法律责任。在这类辩护中,重点在于政府官员的行为,而非被告人的思维状态,亦非被告人之前是否有犯罪动机。即使案件涉及严格责任原则罪行,依然可进行政府误导性犯罪辩护。<br />
<br />
诚意犯罪辩护:<br />
所谓诚意,可指非常诚恳的意见或信念,或用于形容某人缺乏邪念与恶意。通常,诚意犯罪辩护适用于某些需要确定特别意图的税收或财务作假案件。蓄意欺骗或故意造假敛财不能与诚意同时存在。因此,假如刑事辩护律师能证明被告人在行动中存在很强的诚意,就可推出被告人不存在指控方所提出的欺骗或造假意图。<br />
<br />
==='''被告人是否将罪行实施完毕?'''===<br />
<br />
虽然被告人犯罪的性质不能作为无罪辩护的依据,但可以影响法院 最后裁定的刑罚轻重,甚至可以促使法庭决定免刑。因此,援助律师必须仔细地研究被告人的行为,以确定下述情况是否存在,从而为被告人申请减刑,甚或免刑。<br />
<br />
犯罪预备:<br />
刑法第 22 条定义“预备犯罪”为:“为了犯罪,准备工具、制造条件的,是犯罪预备。”即罪行还处于预备阶段。在此情下,被告人可减刑或免刑。<br />
<br />
犯罪未遂:<br />
刑法第 23 条定义“犯罪未遂”为:“已经着手实行犯罪,由于犯罪分子意志以外的原因而未得逞的,是犯罪未遂。”试图犯罪未遂的被告人可减刑或免刑。<br />
<br />
犯罪中止:<br />
刑法第 24 条定义“中止犯罪”为:“在犯罪过程中,自动放弃犯罪或者自动有效地防止犯罪结果发生的,是犯罪中止。”假如被告人中断了犯罪,而没有造成任何伤害,可免刑;即使存在某种伤害,依然可减刑。<br />
<br />
'''有没有人比当事人对犯罪行为负有更多责任?'''<br />
<br />
被告人有没有其他的同案犯?假如有的话,辩护律师必须调查好每一个同案犯的具体角色。 这样你才能确定当事人在犯罪过程中扮演的实际角色。律师需要注意一下共同犯罪(刑法第二十五条 共同犯罪是指二人以上共同故意犯罪)和犯罪集团(刑法第 26 条,三人以上为共同实施犯罪而组成的较为固定的犯罪组织,是犯罪集团):<br />
<br />
当事人是否是犯罪过程中的主谋?你的当事人是否组织,策划或指导犯罪组织或其它同案犯?你的 当事人是否在共同犯罪过程中是位重要角色。你的当事人是首要分子刑法(第 97 条)或是主犯吗?刑法(第 26 条)对组织、领导犯罪集团的首要分子,按照集团所犯的全部罪行处罚。刑法第二十六规定:“对于第三款规定以外的主犯,应当按照其所参与的或者组织、指挥的全部犯罪处罚。”你的当事人是否教唆他人犯罪? 刑法第二十九规定:“教唆他人犯罪的,应当按照他在共同犯罪中所起的作用处罚。教唆不满十八周岁的人犯罪的,应当从重处罚。如果被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪,对于教唆犯,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。”<br />
<br />
你的当事人是否只是在犯罪的预谋和实施阶段中扮演次要角色?<br />
<br />
刑法第二十七条规定: 在共同犯罪中起次要或者辅助作用的,是从犯。对于从犯,应当从轻、减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
刑法第二十九条规定: 如果被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪,对于教唆犯,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''你的当事人应该获得减轻的刑罚或者免除刑罚?'''<br />
<br />
法律在一些情况下允许法庭判处被告人减轻刑罚或者免除罪行。 刑法第六十三条规定: “犯罪分子具有本法规定的减轻处罚情节的,应当在法定刑以下判处刑罚。” 以下的刑法条是关于减轻刑罚的规定:<br />
<br />
第十七条 已满十四周岁不满十八周岁的人犯罪,应当从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第十八条 尚未完全丧失辨认或者控制自己行为能力的精神病人犯罪的,应当负刑事责任,但是可以从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第十九条 又聋又哑的人或者盲人犯罪,可以从轻、减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十条 正当防卫明显超过必要限度造成重大损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十一条 紧急避险超过必要限度造成不应有的损害的,应当负刑事责任,但是应当减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十二条 对于预备犯,可以比照既遂犯从轻、减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十三条 对于未遂犯,可以比照既遂犯从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十四条 对于中止犯,没有造成损害的,应当免除处罚;造成损害的,应当减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十七条 对于从犯,应当从轻、减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十八条 对于被胁迫参加犯罪的,应当按照他的犯罪情节减轻处罚或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第二十九条 如果被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪,对于教唆犯,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
第六十七条 犯罪以后自动投案,如实供述自己的罪行的,是自首。对于自首的犯罪分子,可以从轻或者减轻处罚。其中,犯罪较轻的,可以免除处罚。<br />
<br />
第六十八条 犯罪分子有揭发他人犯罪行为,查证属实的,或者提供重要线索,从而得以侦破其他案件等立功表现的,可以从轻或者减轻处罚;有重大立功表现的,可以减轻或者免除处罚。 犯罪后自首又有重<br />
大立功表现的,应当减轻或者免除处罚。<br />
<br />
'''假如法条上没有具体明示的减轻刑罚,律师还可以为我当事人争取减轻刑罚吗?'''<br />
<br />
是的,刑法 63 条规定 “犯罪分子具有本法规定的减轻处罚情节的,应当在法定刑以下判处刑罚。 犯罪分子虽然不具有本法规定的减轻处罚情节,但是根据案件的特殊情况,经最高人民法院核准,也可以在法定刑以下判处刑罚。” 虽然法条没有具体明确减轻处罚,辩护律师还可以用相关的有力证据来向法庭证明当事人应减轻处罚。<br />
<br />
以下列举了一部分减轻刑罚的证据种类:<br />
<br />
1. 被告人没有长期的犯罪记录。<br />
<br />
2. 被告人对自己参与了犯罪已经表示了诚恳的自责反省。<br />
<br />
3. 被告人已经赔偿了被害者所有的损失。<br />
<br />
4. 被告人还是位未成年人而且他还想继续上学。他的学校也允许他继<br />
续上学。<br />
<br />
5. 被告人需要照顾家里的孩子和老人。<br />
<br />
6. 被告人智力水平低下,所以他很难做出理智地判断,而被别人轻易<br />
利用。<br />
<br />
7. 被告人有艰苦的童年生活(比如小时候在家里受虐待),因此他的健康成长受到了影响。<br />
<br />
8. 被告人要克服的困难大,是个人极限的挑战(家庭暴力,吸毒上瘾)<br />
<br />
9. 被告人有良好的工作和教育经验,或者为社会曾做出过杰出贡献。<br />
<br />
10. 律师考虑如何把被告人描述成为令人同情,宽恕的当事人的任何一种办法。<br />
<br />
想得到这些减轻刑罚的证据,辩护律师必须得到当事人、他的家人和当事人一生中的重要人物(比如老师,老板)的信任。 减轻刑罚的证据也必须成为辩护意见的重要组成部分。 在法庭上出示减轻刑罚的证据,辩护律师不必胆怯使用自己的感情。辩护律师的目的就是要法庭看到当事人的人性一面而且给他一个重新做人的机会。<br />
<br />
=== '''结论'''===<br />
<br />
在构建律师辩护意见的过程中,需要仔细考虑控方是否承担起举证责任。还有,通过调查结论,辩护律师能够判断出当事人的行为是否构成犯罪, 当事人是否有没有任何正当辩护的可能, 当事人是否实际上已完成整个犯罪活动, 当事人是否只是从犯,是否有证据支持当事人有减轻刑罚的可能。这些问题分析后, 辩护律师才能在法庭上展示一个完整的、富有说服力的辩护意见。<br />
<br />
==与当事人会谈时,律师需要考虑的问题==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''如何利用与当事人面谈收集到的信息来进行辩护,下列问题也许会对你有所帮助。'''<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告人有没有共同被告?(共同被告指起诉罪名与被告相同的人)'''<br />
**如果有,获取尽可能多的关于共同被告的信息,包括他们的犯罪前科。<br />
**考虑一下,让被告做证反对共同被告是否对被告本人有利,以便换取被告被释放或使被告获得较轻的判决。<br />
**要意识到共同被告可能会做出不利于被告的证词。<br />
**要意识到共同被告可能会把被告告诉他/她的事情告诉当局。警告被告不要就案件与共同被告交谈或任何律师和调查者以外的人。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''公安机关逮捕和拘留被告人的程序是否符合法律规定?'''<br />
**是否出示逮捕证或 拘留证。<br />
**被告人家人是否在24小时内告知当事人的逮捕和拘留,并通知拘禁地点。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告是否向警方做了供述?'''<br />
**被告人被拘捕24小时之内是否受到审讯?<br />
**在场是否有至少两名审讯人员?<br />
**被告供述一般包括哪些主要内容?<br />
**关押或审讯期间是否对被告施行了高压、威胁、拷问或其他残忍、非人性或卑鄙的手段及惩罚方式?如果供述是非法取得的,要考虑提出申诉。<br />
**讯问笔录是否经过被告的查阅并签字?<br />
**被告的供述是口头的、书面的、录音或拍摄下来的?设法取得供述的一份复印件?<br />
**被告人是否自己书写了个人供述?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''警方有没有对被告身体的生理分泌物取样?'''<br />
**警方有没有对被告身体的生理分泌物取样,比如血液、呼吸器官、尿或精液?如果有的话,设法取得医学检测报告。<br />
**主动保存取样和考虑对被告的生理分泌物重新进行检测。<br />
**公安机关是否带走其他和犯罪有关的物品?<br />
**有无获取物证?是否有搜查证?是否对搜查做了全程记录?是否列出搜查所得物证的相关目录?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''辩护是什么?'''<br />
**如果有证人可以证明被告不在案发现场,设法取得该证人的姓名、地址及电话号码等信息,让一名调查者立即与证人联系。<br />
**如果被告声称自己的行为是自卫、紧急避险行为,并因此而受伤,要立即拍下相关的照片。(刑法:第20, 21 条)<br />
**查明起诉方证人(包括受害人)是否可以信赖,比如他们是否有犯罪记录?被告人的社会关系是否较差?受害人是否已获得赔偿?如果是,赔偿的金额,何时,何人支付?如果被告声称第三者实施了犯罪行为,尽可能找到更多的细节,让一名调查者查明被告所称是否属实。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告是否需要鉴定?'''<br />
**被告是否需要精神或身体鉴定?是否需要专家或一名神经科专家进行相应的鉴定?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告以前是否被定过罪?'''<br />
**有犯罪前科可能会加长被告判刑的年限。立即查找、设法取得有关被告以前犯罪记录的复印件。<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''被告是否被关押?'''<br />
**看被告能否获得取保候审,律师应掌握所需要的材料,帮助被告取保候审,包括可能的保证人和可作取保候审的财产。<br />
<br />
== 辩护律师的阅卷权==<br />
<br />
<br />
#阅卷权是指辩护律师在诉讼活动中有权查阅办案机关制作或者掌握的案件卷宗材料。在我国刑事诉讼过程中,公、检、法机关进行的每一步诉讼活动都要在卷宗记明,相关证据与程序步骤均需在案卷中全面、如实的记载,案卷是公安、司法人员处理案件的基本依据,也是律师进行辩护的重要参考凭据。《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条规定,辩护律师自人民检察院对案件审查起诉之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料,自人民法院受理案件之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案指控的犯罪事实材料。根据刑事诉讼法第一百五十条的规定,这里所谓的“本案指控的犯罪事实材料”并非全部案卷,而是检察院起诉时移送的“证据目录、证人名单与主要证据的复印件”,而移送材料的具体范围与包含的内容由检察机关自己决定。<br />
#《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条规定了辩护律师在审查起诉阶段的阅卷权,“辩护律师自人民检察院对案件审查起诉之日起,可以查阅、摘抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料”。可见,律师在审查起诉阶段阅卷的范围是有限的,仅仅限于“诉讼文书”与“技术性鉴定材料”两部分内容。对于二者的具体范围,《人民检察院刑事诉讼规则》第三百一十九条进一步予以了明确,所谓“诉讼文书”包括立案决定书、拘留证、批准逮捕决定书、逮捕决定书、逮捕证、搜查证、起诉意见书等为立案、采取强制措施和侦查措施以及提请审查起诉而制作的程序性文书。所谓“技术性鉴定材料”包括法医鉴定、司法精神病鉴定、物证技术鉴定等由有鉴定资格的人员对人身、物品及其他有关证据材料进行鉴定所形成的记载鉴定情况和鉴定结论的文书。从辩护实践来看,在上述诉讼文书与材料中,律师首先应当查阅的文件为起诉意见书,因为起诉意见书是侦查机关经过对案件侦查所形成的总结性材料,是侦查机关向检察机关移送起诉的依据,侦查机关指控犯罪嫌疑人的主要事实集中反映在起诉意见书中,辩护律师查阅后,可以对犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的案情有一个概括的了解。<br />
在律师进行阅卷的过程中,有两个具体问题值得注意:一是《关于人民检察院保障律师在刑事诉讼中依法执业的规定》(2003年12月30日)进一步要求检察院公诉部门,对于律师要求查阅、摘抄、复制本案的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料的,受理后应当安排办理;不能当日办理的,应当向律师说明理由,并在3日内择定日期,及时通知律师。二是根据《六部委规定》第14条,律师查阅、摘抄、复制案件的诉讼文书、技术性鉴定材料,相关办案部门,只能收取复制材料所必要的工本费,不得收取各种其他名目的费用,而且工本费收取的标准应当全国统一,由最高人民法院、最高人民检察院报国家价格主管部门核定。<br />
<br />
==辩护律师调查取证据==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''法律背景'''===<br />
<br />
中国法律允许刑事辩护律师采取以下行为:<br />
#审查起诉后查阅诉讼文书和技术性鉴定材料。(刑事诉讼法:第36条)<br />
#进行独立调查,对公安机关和检察机关搜集的证据予以核实 (刑事诉讼法:第37条) <br />
#对专家证人的证词进行评估 (刑事诉讼法:第121 条)<br />
#从证人和受害人那里获取独立的陈述 (刑事诉讼法:第37 条)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''为帮助你对与案件有关的证据进行调查,下列问题是很好的建议:'''<br />
<br />
*'''行动要迅速'''<br />
**最好尽快启动调查<br />
**拖延可能导致失去物证<br />
**证人容易记起刚刚发生的事件<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''注意防范风险'''<br />
#两人进行<br />
#取证后,请被取证人签名<br />
#建议全程录音<br />
#侦查阶段不要调查取证,一是因为法律没有明确准许;二是其取得证据的证明能力,可能遭到法官的质疑<br />
#最好是申请公、检、法机关取证<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''容易获取的信息来源'''<br />
**起诉意见书<br />
**合法调查<br />
**同案犯的供述<br />
**与当事人会谈<br />
**证人<br />
**鉴定结论<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''案发现场'''<br />
**如允许与可能,尽快到案发现场勘查<br />
**利用素描、图表、拍照、录象带,测量等方式记录案发现场的证据<br />
**寻找未被收集的证据<br />
**确定证人并记录将来与他们取得联系的方式<br />
**寻找警方没有访问的证人<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''证人'''<br />
**会见证人至少需要有除律师以外的另一个人在场,全国律协建议2人以上<br />
**记录会见当事人的录象带,磁带<br />
**证人是否具有提供证词的能力?有精神缺陷的人或者年幼没有是非明辩能力的人或不能清楚正确表达的人都不能作为证人(中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法第48条)<br />
**如有可能,会见起诉方的证人(刑事诉讼法:第37条)<br />
**会见目击证人<br />
**运用你的个性,感染不愿做证的证人,说服其予以配合<br />
**与证人的交谈要在安全、舒适的环境中进行<br />
**记录证人的背景资料及当前的工作情况<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''证人和被害人陈述'''<br />
**有没有用录象带或磁带录下证人和被害人的陈述?<br />
**警方摘录了证人和被害人陈述中的哪部分内容?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词是证人和被害人自己亲笔写的吗?<br />
**证人和被害人提供证词的动机是什么?该案件是否牵涉到证人的利益?<br />
**被害人是否受伤?被害人是否提供有关他受伤程度的具体信息?<br />
**被害人和被告人之间是什么关系?证人和被告人之间?证人和被害人之间?<br />
**被害人是否得到某种赔偿?如果有,何时,多少以及谁支付的?<br />
**证人和被害人的精神状态如何?<br />
**证人的陈述是基于证人和被害人自己的观察还是基于耳闻的信息?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词收集是否符合法律规定?证词的收集是否通过刑讯逼供,强迫诱供,欺骗或其他某种非法手段获取?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词是否能相互印证?如果不能,矛盾出现在何处?这些矛盾之处对当事人有帮助还是有损害?<br />
**证人和被害人的证词与被告人的供述是否一致?和同案犯的供述是否一致?如果不一致,矛盾出现在哪里?这些矛盾之处对当事人有帮助还是有损害?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''物证'''<br />
**警方是如何取得证据的?<br />
**出示的搜查证是否有效?<br />
**是否有所有扣押物品的详细清单?清单上所列物件是否和控方所掌握的证据吻合?<br />
**与案件相关的证据掌握情况如何?<br />
**该证据是否有不止一种的解释?<br />
**收集的是原始证据还是传来证据?<br />
**证据是否易被破坏或者较为稳定?如果易破坏,是否尝试了用恰当措施来妥善保管?<br />
**是否因为时间、环境或其他因素而导致证据产生变化?<br />
**如果通过拍照或录象来采集证据,是否有至少两人参与拍照和录象?拍摄人或录象人是否做到准确记录证据?<br />
**证据是否已得到核实证明?证据是否能够在辩护中站稳脚跟?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''书证'''<br />
**出示的搜查证是否有效?<br />
**是否有扣押物证的详细清单?清单所列的书证是否与控方的证据相一致?<br />
**与案件相关的书证掌握情况如何?<br />
**这些文件是否有不止一种理解? <br />
**这些文件是否属实或是捏造的?<br />
**文件上的署名和印章是否完整和属实?<br />
**如果这些文件是复制的或是影印的,为何原件不能使用?是否至少有两人在场情况下复制或影印?该案件是否牵涉到文件复制或影印人的利益?署名或印章是否属实和有效?<br />
**复印或影印的版本是否完全和原件一致?<br />
**复印件或影印件是否经核查属实?<br />
**如果公安机关或检察机关扣押了邮件或电报,其途径是否合乎刑诉法111的规定?是否是由邮电机关检查并递交这些物件?是否存在伪造或是改变或替代扣押的邮件或电报的可能性?<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''专家鉴定'''<br />
**专家是否获得法律许可来进行鉴定?<br />
**专家审查了哪些证据?<br />
**他们各自的专业领域是什么?<br />
**他或她做了多长时间的专家?<br />
**专家资历如何?他或她是否被批准有资格成为专家鉴定人?<br />
**专家是否能胜任本职工作?专家是否采用符合国家或本行业规定的方法和技术?专家在开展鉴定过程中是否使用现代科学技术?鉴定是否超过本行业范畴,超出该司法鉴定机构的技术能力和评估能力以外?<br />
**作为专家推导出鉴定结论基础的这些材料是否充分并真实?这些材料是否可以用来鉴定,评估或者与鉴定要求有矛盾,冲突之处?<br />
**考虑是否需要向辩护专家建议开展一个独立的证据核查工作。<br />
**你的当事人有无身体或精神损伤是需要专家进行鉴定解释的?如果有,向法庭请求专家对当事人的身体或精神状况进行鉴定。向专家提供所有相关的医疗记录。提供当事人的社会履历为专家鉴定所用<br />
<br />
<br />
*'''证人的性格特征及案发现场'''<br />
**查阅目击证人的口供时,可以将重点集中在表格中列举的几个方面,个性特征可以帮助缩小辩护律师的调查范围,帮助辩护律师找出证人证词中的优势和薄弱环节。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''表中内容影响到证人对案件的观察。'''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| border="1"<br />
|'''证人性格特征'''<br />
|'''案发现场环境'''<br />
|-<br />
|性别<br />
|光线强弱<br />
|-<br />
|智力<br />
|白天或夜晚<br />
|-<br />
|记忆力<br />
|白天或夜晚的具体时间<br />
|-<br />
|教育背景<br />
|月光<br />
|-<br />
|工作经历<br />
|雨<br />
|-<br />
|使用语言<br />
|雾<br />
|-<br />
|说话障碍<br />
|冷度<br />
|-<br />
|年龄<br />
|热度<br />
|-<br />
|性格<br />
|人数<br />
|-<br />
|思维状况<br />
|目睹案件的时间长度<br />
|-<br />
|身体健康状况<br />
|看见在场所有人和他们活动的实际能力<br />
|-<br />
|(饮)酒量<br />
|凶器<br />
|-<br />
|因为服用药物或非法毒品而造成的损伤<br />
|自然植物<br />
|-<br />
|视力<br />
|建筑物<br />
|-<br />
|听力<br />
|汽车<br />
|-<br />
|与被害人的关系<br />
|交通环境<br />
|-<br />
|与被告的关系<br />
|观察角度(位置)<br />
|-<br />
|与同案犯的关系<br />
|俯视(观察角度)<br />
|-<br />
|动机<br />
|仰视<br />
|-<br />
|袒护当事人,被害人及同案犯或持有偏见<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|被害人或证人<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|在案件发生之前,之中和之后是否因此受到威胁<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===辩护意见及故事陈述===<br />
<br />
<br />
'''介绍:'''<br />
<br />
在调查与出庭的准备过程中,刑事辩护律师应当逐渐构建一套辩护意见,并不断修正。辩护意见由三部分构成:相关法律、事实与感情。在法庭上,刑事辩护律师会使用辩护意见来讲述被告的故事。讲故事亦有三部分:一份总体辩护意见、若干支持此意见的分题以及当庭的演讲。不同的声调、发问的节奏速度、肢体语言、眼神交流与各类修辞技巧的应用都是讲述故事过程的组成部分。由此,刑事辩护律师可通过其陈述营造充满悬念与吸引力的氛围,建立自己的辩护情境。法庭将在此情境下评估案件证据。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''实行:'''<br />
<br />
#刑事辩护律师应当构建一份能够围绕被告人最高利益与其现实情况的总体辩护意见,以便有助于在辩护过程中对各种选择做出评估。<br />
#援助律师应当允许辩护意见决定案件调查与备案过程的侧重,挖掘并扩展因辩护意见而成形的事实与证据。但是,援助律师不应成为其辩护意见的“囚徒”。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''辩护意见工作表:'''<br />
<br />
下述问题将有助于援助律师建造一份完整且通顺的辩护意见:<br />
<br />
#你的辩护意见是什么?(如:无罪、不在场见证人、身份指认有误)<br />
#你为何认为这是最佳的辩护意见?<br />
#相关法律是什么?所指控罪名的构成要件是什么?你的辩护意见如何证明被告无罪?<br />
#哪些事实是你所不能改变,但必须在辩护意见中面对并解释的?<br />
#哪些事实最有利于被告方?<br />
#此案件最重要的感情主题是什么?<br />
#原告方最可能在其指控中利用哪些感情主题?你的辩护意见与主题将如何应对这些感情主题?<br />
#列出原告方提供的主要证人,并在每个证人的名字后标明你准备如何询问此人。最后,再简略地指出此询问的风格。<br />
#列出被告方将提供的主要证人,并在每个证人的名字后标明你准备如何向此人提问。最后,再简略地指出此提问的风格。<br />
#列出你直接询问被告时希望实现的目标。被告的证词将如何强化你的辩护意见?<br />
#你还需要作哪些调查才能建立你的辩护意见?<br />
#你必须解决哪些证据问题?这些证据问题倾向于强化还是削弱你的辩护意见?你将如何解释那些与辩护意见不协调的证据?<br />
#为你的辩护意见找到一句有效的概括。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''讲故事:在法庭上考验你的辩护意见与主题'''<br />
<br />
想有效地辩护,必须懂得讲故事。能够对法官们讲出更动人或可信的故事,就能更好地说服他们;而这些法官将决定案件的事实。每个故事都需要剧情才能紧凑。在辩护中,剧情就是能最好地解释事实的辩护意见。<br />
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'''为什么援助律师应当向法庭讲故事?'''<br />
<br />
讲故事允许援助律师铺设背景舞台,介绍人物,营造气氛,并搭建一具精心修剪的框架,来影响每个法官看待案件的视角。假如没有这种框架,法官们将依据原告方的意见理解证据与证词。而假如能成功建造框架,援助律师就可以用被告的经历来左右法官们的想象,由此引导多数法官根据被告的经历背景来理解证据。<br />
更重要的是,讲故事可以使法官们用心与感情来琢磨被告的辩护,而不仅用理智。“用理智相信的人”更容易改变判断,因为他们通常以这种思路反思与分析:“我的意见是基于逻辑的。所以,假如你(理智地)指出我的问题,我就会考虑改变意见。”而“用心与感情相信的人”会以另一种思路反思与分析:“我是对的,你是错的,所以你必须改变你的观点。”这些人是你在法庭上最有力的盟友。<br />
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'''用有效的语言讲故事:'''<br />
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下面列出了一些建议,帮助你判断在陈述被告方的辩护意见时应该使用何种语言,或该避免何种语言。<br />
<br />
#讲故事的语言与律师通常使用的语言有明显区别。与在酒吧里相识的朋友讲话时使用何种语言,讲故事时就应使用何种语言。<br />
#准确地使用语言—所表达的应与你意图表达的完全一致。<br />
#要把法律词汇与抽象的概念翻译成清晰、通俗、简单的语言。<br />
#使用有力的语言:<br />
##避免有保留含义的词汇或短语,如“我认为”,“我相信”,“我会试图证明……”。<br />
##使用主动语态。<br />
##尽量依赖名词与动词达意。<br />
##避免无意的迟疑与无用的动词停顿。<br />
##使用拥有恰当感情内容与号召的语言。<br />
#使用生动的预言:<br />
##使用坚实而不抽象的语言。<br />
##使用精准而非泛泛的语言。<br />
##用语言描绘生动的意象:<br />
#在脑中将你要描述的事物形象化,并当庭描绘这些形象。<br />
#使事件细节形象化的能力会赋予你强大的说服力。<br />
#使用语言意象优于主观地使用抽象且空泛的词语。<br />
#语句长短应有变化,但同时应非常偏爱短句子。书面语句通常比口述语句长。<br />
#不要看稿演说:这样会使讲故事的优势荡然无存。<br />
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'''结论:'''<br />
<br />
建造一套辩护意见要求援助律师能客观地批评指控方的陈词,并依据法律、事实、与感情构思一个动人的故事来反驳这份陈词。辩护意见会影响案件的调查、出庭的证人、与当庭的论证。通过讲述一个合理且有力的故事,援助律师可以说服法官们相信被告无罪,或应从轻处理,或应免刑。<br />
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===各种辩护策略===<br />
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<br />
'''介绍'''<br />
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在构建辩护意见的过程中,刑辩律师必须判断是否能替被告开脱罪名。假如能够做到这点,还需考虑该如何向法官们证明被告无罪。下面列举了一些在中国法律框架下,可能为被告开脱的辩护方法,并指出了它们适用于何种情节。<br />
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'''控诉方应承担举证责任'''<br />
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应当记住,被告人享有无罪推定的权利。未经人民法院依法判决,对任何人不得确定有罪(刑事诉讼法第12条)。在刑事案件中,检察官有责任承担对被告所控罪名的举证责任。这意味着检察官必须证明该指控事实清楚且证据充分。<br />
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<br />
[[媒体:各种辩护策略.doc]]<br />
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===鉴定人===<br />
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<br />
'''介绍'''<br />
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'''法律允许刑事辩护人:'''<br />
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向法庭申请寻求鉴定人进行鉴定(刑事诉讼法第128条)<br />
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鉴定结论应当由侦查机关告知(刑事诉讼法148条)<br />
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请求法庭批准进行重新鉴定或辅助性的补充鉴定(刑事诉讼法147,148条)<br />
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庭审时对鉴定人的交叉询问(刑事诉讼法第194条)<br />
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请求法庭在庭审期间重新鉴定(刑事诉讼法第197条)<br />
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在中国的民事案件受理中鉴定人被广泛地接受,同样,鉴定人在刑事案件中也越来越频繁地使用。以下的信息将帮助你判断,何时聘请一名专家,通常在何种案件中需要一名专家的协助以及如何质疑令人疑惑的鉴定意见等问题。<br />
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'''在何时,你应当考虑聘请一名鉴定人?'''<br />
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刑事辩护人应当在遇到以下必要情况时设法获得专家的帮助:<br />
(A)为辩护准备<br />
(B)阅读并理解控方证据<br />
(C)反驳控方证据<br />
(D)调查当事人是否具有刑事责任能力和当时的精神状态<br />
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'''什么样的问题需要专家的帮助?'''<br />
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根据中国刑事诉讼法第146条,“为了查明案情,需要解决案件中某些专门性问题的时候,应当指派,聘请有关专门知识的人进行鉴定。”虽然在第146法条中对某些专门性问题没有界定,但是专家常常可以解释一些普通人理解上有问题的复杂问题。 <br />
<br />
专家鉴定可能包括,但不仅限于以下范围:有适用于法庭的鉴定,对伤口进行法医鉴定,对精神病的法医鉴定,财产的估价,对古董的鉴定,稀有动植物和从中提取制成的产品的鉴定,对禁用品和危险品进行评估,还有对电表数据进行测定。在获得人民法院同意之后,司法鉴定部门对可以作为证据的材料,如检验报告,医药记录,会计报表等进行调查分析。 <br />
<br />
因而,在被害人死亡或受伤原因不明或有争议的案件中,获取专家协助是很有价值的。如在与被告人精神状况相关的任何一个案件中;在涉及到被偷盗的物件价值,相关材料或记录的真实性,药品或其他物质的化学组成,起因不明的火灾,意外事故或其他事件,血迹,精液,其他体液,毛发,纤维或指纹来源不明的案件中;通过鉴定专家可以来帮助法庭来理解所要讨论问题的案件。<br />
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'''鉴定专家是出庭作证,还是提供咨询?'''<br />
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在做出这个选择时,首先应弄清这两类专家的不同。出庭作证的专家是会到法庭上来并为辩护作证,或者在他的鉴定结果基础上编写辩护意见。刑事辩护律师必须争取法庭的同意,才能让证人出庭作证或出示其所获得的证据。同时,刑事辩护律师也可以在辩护中向法院提议需要聘请鉴定人来澄清事实真相,他也可以请求延长庭审时间,这样专家就有足够的时间进行鉴定。<br />
提供咨询的专家,另一方面,是一名帮助刑事辩护律师理解复杂问题但不出庭作证的专家。刑事辩护律师不需要获得法庭的同意,才可以和咨询专家交流意见。那么,提供咨询的鉴定专家是如何协助刑事辩护律师的呢? <br />
#协助律师编写辩护意见并用富有说服力的方式将事件的各个片段串联在一起形成一段叙述性的故事<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师删除不必要的信息,以免偏离辩护意见的主题或者带来过分复杂冗繁的案情陈述(专家协助律师准备在出庭时使用的专家鉴定,使其内容完备和具有说服力,但不会过于复杂)<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师编写一个语言流畅、组织有序的辩护词,避免辩护中牵涉到太多的鉴定人或太过复杂的专家证词<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师挑选出一名有能力的鉴定人,可以很好地论证,用简单明了而又具有说服力的方式讲述被告人的故事<br />
#帮助刑事辩护律师与同领域的其他专家或相关领域的专家建立良好的工作关系<br />
#协助刑事辩护律师批判性地评估和展开辩论,揭示控方鉴定人鉴定中的弱点和逻辑上不吻合之处<br />
<br />
对法律援助律师来说,最好选择具有学术背景的专家(不论是出庭的还是提供咨询的鉴定人),比如说研究性的和培训性的大学中的人员。<br />
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'''选择一个鉴定人时,你需要考虑哪些因素?'''<br />
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选择鉴定人,有很多需要考虑的重要问题,但是基本的原则是作为一个科学家,鉴定人应当更注重过程和事件的进展而非结果。因而,当刑事辩护律师评定某人是否具有专业素养和丰富经验,聘请其为鉴定人时,应当考虑以下几个方面的问题:<br />
<br />
*该鉴定人是否接受过一定程度的教育,在某一专业领域有足够的经验?<br />
*该鉴定人在专业领域的名誉如何?他在该领域受到其他专家何种程度的尊重?<br />
*你所受理的案件需要何种类型的专家?<br />
*该鉴定人是否仍在接受教育?<br />
*正常情况下,该鉴定人在自己的专业领域中投入多少时间?除在专业领域工作外,他是否还有其他的工作?<br />
*该鉴定人先前是否为被告人,被害人等提供过专家鉴定证词?这份证词与你受理案件中的事实是否相吻合?<br />
<br />
刑事辩护律师不是科学家,因而他不可能如鉴定人一样具备某一特定领域专业知识。然而,律师应当遵循客观准则并力求鉴定人结论的客观性,科学性和说服力。<br />
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'''你是否需要获得法庭的批准才可以聘请一位鉴定人?'''<br />
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前面也提到了,你需要获得法庭的批准才可以聘请一位出庭鉴定人(出庭鉴定人是你希望他出庭作证或在庭审期间引用他的鉴定结果)。不过,如果你仅是想确保你理解案情,你可以不需要通过法庭同意,就可以和提供咨询的律师进行交流。<br />
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'''法庭能否安排进行鉴定?'''<br />
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可以,中国刑事诉讼法第128条规定法院有权组织开展鉴定“当需要解决案件中的特殊问题以便能让案情结果澄清时”,另外,刑事诉讼法第196条,容许法庭开展专家鉴定“当需要开展调查以核实证据时”,刑事诉讼法第196条指出这种情况的适用条款“当合议庭对证据有疑问时,可以宣布休庭”。<br />
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'''新通过的鉴定决定的变化'''<br />
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根据全国人民代表大会常务委员会关于司法鉴定管理问题的决定(2015),“司法鉴定是指在诉讼活动中鉴定人运用科学技术或者专门知识对诉讼涉及的专门性问题进行鉴别和判断并提供鉴定意见的活动”。<br />
<br />
司法鉴定的机构、人员条件以及登记管理程序,在《决定》中都有了进一步的规定,律师聘请鉴定人时,应仔细甄别聘请的人员是否符合《决定》要求的条件。特别注意<br />
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• 适用的对象目前只包括四类鉴定事项:法医类、物证类、声像资料类,以及根据诉讼需要由国务院司法行政部门商最高人民法院、最高人民检察院确定的其他应当对鉴定人和鉴定机构实行登记管理的鉴定事项。<br />
<br />
• 侦查机关根据侦查工作的需要设立的鉴定机构,不得面向社会接受委托从事司法鉴定业务。人民法院和司法行政部门不得设立鉴定机构。<br />
<br />
• 各鉴定机构之间没有隶属关系,鉴定机构接受委托从事司法鉴定业务,不受地域范围的限制。鉴定人应当在一个鉴定机构中执业。<br />
<br />
• 诉讼中,鉴定事项应当委托列入鉴定人名册的鉴定人进行鉴定。<br />
<br />
• 鉴定人应当按照诉讼法的规定,实行回避。诉讼中,当事人对鉴定意见有异议的,经人民法院依法通知,鉴定人应当出庭作证。<br />
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'''你能否对法庭作出的鉴定结果或控方授权开展的鉴定提出质疑?'''<br />
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是的,刑事辩护律师对法庭进行的鉴定或控方的鉴定提出质疑有多种途径,如下所示:<br />
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1. 鉴定申请的拒绝-开展鉴定的一方应当承担起由于陈述的错误或信息不完备而导致鉴定报告错误的责任。另外,中国刑事诉讼法第 147 条规定“如果鉴定人故意作虚假鉴定的,应当承担法律责任”。<br />
<br />
2. 重新鉴定—中国刑事诉讼法第 148 及 197 条允许犯罪嫌疑人或被告人请求进行重新鉴定。重新鉴定的物件必须和首次鉴定的相同。对不同的物件进行鉴定时,不应视其为重新鉴定。最初的鉴定机构可以开展所有的重新鉴定,除了在第一类中提到的应当由其他机构开展的鉴定。<br />
<br />
3. 补充鉴定—中国刑事诉讼法第 148 条对补充鉴定进行了规定。这种鉴定发生前提条件是,在新的鉴定物件被发现后或某些物件被不恰当地排除在最初的鉴定物件行列中<br />
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'''结论'''<br />
<br />
鉴定人可以为刑事辩护律师提供宝贵的帮助,通过帮助律师理解复杂的科学难题,评估。对真实性的考验和其他专业性极强的问题,通过帮助他们整合这些复杂的信息使它们易于理解和极富说服力。另外,专家可以帮助刑事辩护律师对控方证据的弱点提出批判性的质疑,从而形成可以成功反驳控方证据的辩护意见。鉴定人应当被看作辩护律师团体中重要的成员,他们的才智和经验可以被运用到解释控方所掌握的犯罪事实为何不准确的辩护中来。</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381091China/zh2023-09-10T04:02:59Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div><br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
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中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
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== 系统类型 ==<br />
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中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
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=== 中国的法律援助 ===<br />
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中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
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地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
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法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
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法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
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在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
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2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
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== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
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2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力。不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民。<br />
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=== 刑事被告人的一般权利 ===<br />
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*用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九条)<br />
*对于审判人员、检察人员和侦查人员侵犯公民诉讼权利和人身侮辱的行为,提出控告的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十四条)<br />
*要求审判人员、检察人员、侦查人员回避的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十九条)<br />
*委托辩护人的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*如果符合条件,使用法律援助的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十五条)<br />
*代理自己的权利。(刑事诉讼法》第三十三条)<br />
*约见值班律师的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二十六条)<br />
*与辩护律师会见和通信的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*拒绝辩护人继续为他辩护及另行委托辩护人辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十五条)<br />
*不起诉的决定,应当公开宣布,并且将不起诉决定书送达被不起诉人和他的所在单位。如果被*不起诉人在押,应当立即释放。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百七十八条)<br />
*不被迫证明自己有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十二条)<br />
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=== 侦查阶段和检察阶段 ===<br />
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*讯问过程被录音或者录像的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十三条)<br />
*不被以刑讯逼供等非法手段供述的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*严禁刑讯逼供和以威胁、引诱、欺骗以及其他非法方法收集证据。(《刑事诉讼法》 第一百九十七条)<br />
*不得被通过非法拘禁等非法限制人身自由的方法收集供述。(《刑事诉讼法》 第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*拒绝回答与本案无关的问题的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十条)<br />
*不得以连续传唤、拘传的形式变相拘禁。传唤、拘传时,应当保证饮食和必要的休息时间。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百一十九条)<br />
*讯问聋、哑的犯罪嫌疑人,应当有通晓聋、哑手势的人参加,并且将这种情况记明笔录。 (《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十一条)<br />
*讯问笔录应当交犯罪嫌疑人核对,对于没有阅读能力的,应当向他宣读。如果记载有遗漏或者差错,犯罪嫌疑人可以提出补充或者改正。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百二十二条)<br />
*搜查妇女的身体,应当由女性工作人员或者医师进行。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百三十二条、第一百三十九条)<br />
*申请相关人员出示拘留证、逮捕证、搜查证的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第八十五条、第九十三条、第一百三十八条)<br />
*申请变更强制措施的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第九十七条)<br />
*申请取保候审的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十五条)<br />
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=== 庭审阶段 ===<br />
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*获得公开审判和辩护的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十一条)<br />
*未经人民法院依法判决,不得确定有罪的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第十二条)<br />
*向法院申请通知新的证人出庭,收集新的物证,或申请新的评估或调查的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百九十七条)<br />
*排除非法证据的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
*经过当庭出示、辨认、质证等法庭调查程序查证属实的证据,才能作为定罪量刑的根据。(《刑事诉讼法》第六十一条,《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第四条)<br />
*犯罪的时候不满十八周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女,不适用死刑。审判的时候已满七十五周岁的人,不适用死刑,但以特别残忍手段致人死亡的除外。(《刑法》第四十九条)<br />
*办理死刑案件,对被告人犯罪事实的认定,必须达到证据确实、充分。(《关于办理死刑案件审查判断证据若干问题的规定》第五条)<br />
*提出上诉和申请审判监督的权利。(《刑事诉讼法》第二百二十七条、第二百五十二条)<br />
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== 辩护人的一般权利 ==<br />
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自从2016年刑事诉讼系统以审判为中心的改革以后,辩护律师在司法系统中被赋予了更加积极和独立的角色。辩护律师的角色和权利包括:<br />
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*辩护律师在侦查期间可以为犯罪嫌疑人提供法律帮助;代理申诉、控告;申请变更强制措施;向侦查机关了解犯罪嫌疑人涉嫌的罪名和案件有关情况,并提出意见。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)<br />
*在辩护律师代表委托人期间,辩护律师对在执业活动中知悉的委托人的有关情况和信息有权予以保密,但涉及危害国家安全、公共安全或严重危害他人的犯罪的事项除外。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十八条)<br />
*辩护律师有权在向看守所提出正式请求的48小时内与在押的犯罪嫌疑人会见和通信,该会见不被监听。(《刑事诉讼法》第三十九条)<br />
*当案件被移交到人民检察院后,辩护律师有权查阅、核实证据和其他案件资料。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十条)<br />
*当辩护律师发现可以宣判犯罪嫌疑人无罪的证据,辩护律师有权请求公安机关、人民检察院或人民法院调取。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十一条、第四十二条)<br />
*辩护律师可以自己开展调查并与证人会见。(《刑事诉讼法》第四十三条)<br />
*在调查过程中,辩护律师可以向侦查机关提交书面意见,该意见应当附卷移交至人民检察院。(《刑事诉讼法》第一百六十一条)<br />
*更重要的是,辩护律师有权请求排除采用刑讯逼供等非法方法收集的证据。(《刑事诉讼法》第五十六条、第五十八条)<br />
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== 审前阶段 ==<br />
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中国的刑事诉讼分为三个阶段,每个阶段都是完全独立的:侦查、起诉和审判阶段。其中的前两个阶段组成了审前阶段。<br />
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刑事案件的侦查阶段由警方负责,警方在此期间负责拘留嫌疑人、指导审讯、收集证据和询问证人。在侦查阶段,律师的作用有限,但《刑事诉讼法》规定,律师有权为当事人提供法律咨询、代理申诉和控告,并代表当事人申请保释(《刑事诉讼法》第三十八条)。<br />
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一旦刑事案件被立案,被告人必须强制出庭,或被拘传。在这种情况下,被告必须到警察局报到,并可能被要求在警察局接受长达 12 小时的讯问。在此期间,调查当局应告知被告其有权聘请辩护人(《刑事诉讼法》第 34 条)。在侦查阶段,辩护律师可以提供法律援助,包括代理申诉、控告,申请变更强制措施,向侦查机关了解案件有关情况,提供法律意见(《刑事诉讼法》第38条)。<br />
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所有嫌疑人必须在被捕或拘留后 12 小时内接受审讯。在向犯罪嫌疑人提出任何问题之前,警方必须询问其是否犯罪以及当时的情况。中国法律禁止刑讯逼供和其他以暴力或非法方法取得的证据。对物证、书证的收集不符合法定程序,可能严重影响司法公正的,应当予以补正或者作出合理解释;不能补正或者作出合理解释的,应当予以排除。(《刑事诉讼法》第 56 条) <br />
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调查阶段结束后,起诉程序开始。此时,调查人员将收集到的证据提交给检察院,由检察院决定犯罪情节是否清楚,证据是否可靠和充分(《刑事诉讼法》第 171 条)。在做出这些决定时,检察官必须讯问嫌疑人及其代理人,并与受害人及其代理人协商。如果在审查过程中,检察官发现在调查过程中使用了任何非法方法,检察官可将调查人员的行为提交给适当的纪律部门。如果不当行为上升到刑事犯罪的程度,则将其移交检察院相关部门进行调查(《刑事诉讼法》第 175 条)。提起公诉的决定应在一个月内做出;对于性质复杂案件,该期限可延长 15 天(《刑事诉讼法》第 172 条)。<br />
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中国法律仅保障律师在起诉阶段享有有限的权利接触证据。该权利包括查阅案件中所有司法文件的权利,人民检察院检察委员会讨论记录、人民法院合议庭讨论记录、审判委员会讨论记录以及其他依法不能公开的材料除外(《刑事诉讼法》第 40 条)。<br />
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律师可在起诉期间进行独立调查,包括向证人收集证据,并在检察院的批准下,与受害人及其家属,或由受害人提供的证人进行面谈。然而,在实践中,律师很少行使这一权利。这是因为根据《刑法》第 308 条,律师有风险因捏造证据或诱使证人提供虚假证词而面临刑事指控。滥用证据而面临刑事指控。此外,律师如何向法院或检察院提出申请并获得批准没有具体的程序规定,而且律师独立收集的证据往往不被法院接受,这些都阻碍了律师在现实中行使这一权利。<br />
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=== 认罪认罚从宽制度 ===<br />
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2018年,中国建立了认罪认罚从宽制度,使刑事诉讼中的认罪认罚法制化,根据刑事案件的复杂程度进行分流,节约司法资源。该制度规定,必须为每个被告提供法律代理,以保障认罪的自愿性和准确性。 认罪认罚从宽制度贯穿于刑事诉讼的始终,适用于刑事侦查、起诉和审判等各个阶段。在侦查阶段,"认罚"表现为愿意接受处罚;在起诉阶段,"认罚 "表现为接受人民检察院拟作出的起诉或者不起诉决定,认可人民检察院的量刑建议,签署认罪认罚具结书;在审判阶段,"认罚 "表现为在法庭上确认自愿签署认罪认罚具结书,并在审判阶段表示愿意接受处罚。然后,法院应根据法律、案件性质和相关情节决定是否从轻处罚以及如何从轻处罚。<br />
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== 审判程序 ==<br />
<br />
在检察院认定犯罪构成,证据充分后,检察院会向法院提起公诉,由法院进行审理。所有案件都必须进行审判,即使被告已经承认了自己的罪行。但是,如果被告人根据认罪认罚从宽制度认罪,案件可能会被转移到更简单的程序。 审判程序有三种:常规程序、简易程序和快速裁判程序(也称为快速量刑程序)。符合下列条件的基层人民法院管辖的案件,可以适用简易程序:(一)案件事实清楚,证据具体、充分;(二)被告人认罪,对指控的犯罪事实没有异议的;(三)被告对适用简易程序没有异议(见《刑事诉讼法》第二百零八条)。由基层人民法院管辖的案件中,被告人可能被判处三年及以下有期徒刑,且案件事实清楚,证据确凿、充分,被告人认罪认罚,同意适用快速裁决程序的,可以适用快速裁决程序。快速裁决案件由一位法官独立审理(2018 《刑事诉讼法》,第二百二十二条)。虽然有争议的案件必须通过正常审判程序审理,但被告认罪认罚的案件可以通过三种审判程序中的任何一种审理,具体取决于被告的选择。<br />
<br />
从1996年《刑事诉讼法》的改革开始,到2012年和2018年的修订,以及2016年转向以审判为中心的方法,中国的审判在性质上变得更加对抗。这些改革保障了更大的法律代理权,并包括旨在保护公平审判权和加强律师作用的其他措施。在审判阶段,律师可以自由地去法院获取检察官放在法庭档案中的所有证据的副本。然而,尽管有这些改进,中国律师在审判中的能力仍然受到限制。律师在中国审判中的作用通常仅限于要求更宽大的判决,并向法院提出减轻处罚的因素。律师很少对检察官对被告的指控提出异议。<br />
<br />
在审判期间,法院有权传唤证人接受控辩双方的询问和盘问。但实际上,证人很少出现。一般来说,证人证词只是由控方在法庭上大声朗读,剥夺了辩方进行盘问的机会。专家证人亲自出庭的情况也很少见。检察官通常依靠专家报告和评估。中国被告无权保持沉默。在预审和审判阶段,他们都必须回答向他们提出的所有问题。根据《刑事诉讼法》,如果被告人认罪,或如实报案,法院将给予奖励,并从宽处理。因此,律师经常向委托人提出起诉性质的问题,因为他们相信,如果他们的委托人承认犯罪,他们将得到更有利的判决。<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
*中国报告称,截至 2018 年,其监狱总人口为 170 万人。 <br />
*截至 2018 年,中国报告称,每 100,000 名中国公民就有 119 名囚犯。 <br />
*中国的监狱人口包括约0.8%的少年犯和约20多万审前羁押人员<br />
*司法部在683所监狱关押已判刑囚犯,包括41所女性监狱和28所少年犯感化院。<br />
*2020年,中国的审前羁押率约为53%。 <br />
*2019年至2021年,全国检察机关积极实施认罪认罚从宽制度。认罪认罚从宽制度的适用率由2019年的49.3%上升至2021年的89.4%。 <br />
*刑事案件的不逮捕率和不起诉率分别为31.2%和16.6%,分别比2018年上升9.1%和8.9%。<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381090China/zh2023-09-10T03:49:01Z<p>Jsalome5: /* 中国的法律援助 */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
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<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
== 中国的法律援助 ==<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
<br />
法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
<br />
2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力。不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民。<br />
<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381089China/zh2023-09-10T03:46:02Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
<br />
''对“辩护维基”的内容编辑仅限于通过批准的作者。若有意申请编辑权,请注册并发送电子邮件至 elearning@ibj.org.''<br />
<br />
== 背景介绍 ==<br />
<br />
中华文明可追溯到 3500 年前,中华文明长期以来一直是世界上最具创新力和影响力的文明之一。中国最后一个王朝--清朝,建立于 1644 年,其特点是扩张主义、军事力量超凡和高度组织化的官僚机构。然而,清朝最终被迫退位,一个非王朝的共和国被建立了。一场内战困扰着这个共和国,国民党民族主义者和中国共产党(CCP)之间展开了内战,最终中国共产党取得了胜利。1949 年,中国共产党建立了由毛泽东领导的中华人民共和国。毛泽东领导下的中国经历了极端的经济改革、饥荒、贫困和严重的文化大革命。毛泽东的继任者邓小平改革了共产主义议程,中国开始经历更大的经济发展和社会改善。如今,中国已成为世界第二大经济体。<br />
<br />
== 系统类型 ==<br />
<br />
中国的刑事司法系统由公安局、检察院、法院和劳教所组成。这些部门各自的职责如下:公安部门负责刑事案件的侦查、拘留和预备审查;人民检察院负责批准逮捕、开展检察工作(包括部分侦查工作)和提起公诉;人民法院负责审判;监狱或其他机构负责执行判决。<br />
中国法院系统以大陆法系为基础,仿效苏联和欧陆的法律原则。中国的法院系统分为四级。最高一级是设在北京的最高人民法院。下一级是高级人民法院,设在各省、自治区和直辖市(即北京、上海、重庆和天津)。然后是中级人民法院,设在地级市(介于省和县级市之间的一个级别--这些城市通常被授予地级市地位并有权管辖周边县的城市)以及省、自治区和直辖市的部分地区。县、镇和区也有基层人民法院。每个法院的管辖权取决于每个案件的性质和复杂程度。<br />
中国的刑法编纂于《刑法》(2021 年修订)以及旨在进一步明确和解释《刑法》各项规定的条例、细则和意见中。《刑事诉讼法》(2018 年修订)对刑事法律程序作出了规定,该法还对被告人和辩护人的权利作出了规定。<br />
中国没有陪审团制度。刑事案件由独任法官、法官合议庭或法官与非专业人士("人民陪审员")组成的混合合议庭审理。在普通案件中,混合法庭由一名专业法官和两名人民陪审员组成。但在重大案件中,混合法庭应包括三名专业法官和四名人民陪审员(详见 2018 年《人民陪审员法》第十六条)。对于重大案件(包括大部分凶杀案件),由法院院长、副院长、庭长等领导干部组成的审判委员会进行裁判。<br />
<br />
== 中国的法律援助 ==<br />
<br />
中国的法律援助受《法律援助法》管辖,该法于 2021 年 8 月由全国人大常委会提出,并于 2022 年 1 月生效。<br />
地方政府司法行政部门负责设立法律援助机构,负责提供法律援助(《法律援助法》 第十二条)。该机构的工作包括三个方面:受理和审查法律援助申请;指派人员提供法律援助;向法律援助人员发放法律援助补贴。<br />
法律援助人员分为三类:律师、基层法律服务工作者和法律援助志愿者(《法律援助法》第十二条)。律师包括律师事务所的私人律师和法律援助机构的内部律师。<br />
法律援助服务包括:法律咨询;起草法律文书;刑事辩护和代理;民事、行政和国家赔偿案件的诉讼和非诉讼代理;值班律师的法律援助;劳动争议调解和仲裁代理;法律、法规和规章规定的其他情形。(《法律援助法》第二十二条)<br />
在刑事案件中,犯罪嫌疑人/被告人因经济困难或者其他原因申请法律援助的,由法律援助机构审查决定是否给予援助(《法律援助法》第二十四条)。但犯罪嫌疑人/被告人属于下列人员之一且未委托律师辩护的,法律援助机构必须向其提供法律援助:未成年人;有视力、听力、言语障碍的人;不能完全辨认自己行为的成年人;可能被判处无期徒刑、死刑的人;死刑复核案件中申请法律援助的被告人;缺席审判案件的被告人;法律、法规规定的其他人员。(《法律援助法》第二十五条)<br />
2018 年修订的《刑事诉讼法》设立了值班律师制度。法律援助机构可以在人民法院、监狱等场所派驻值班律师。犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有委托辩护人,法律援助机构也没有指派律师为其辩护的,值班律师应当为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人提供法律帮助,包括但不限于法律咨询、程序选择建议、申请变更强制措施、提出办案意见等(《刑事诉讼法》第三十六条)。其目的是让值班律师在获得辩护人之前发挥临时作用。<br />
<br />
== 刑事被告人的权利 ==<br />
<br />
2003 年修订的中国宪法在法院判决中不具有法律效力。不过,宪法第三十七 条规定,中国公民享有绝对自由,未经公安机关批准不得逮捕任何人,不得非法拘禁任何人。然而,由于中国宪法并不可以自动自发执行,这些权利并不一定能保护公民。<br />
<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381088China/zh2023-09-09T11:44:02Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
<br />
''对“辩护维基”的内容编辑仅限于通过批准的作者。若有意申请编辑权,请注册并发送电子邮件至 elearning@ibj.org.''<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381087China/zh2023-09-09T11:43:22Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div><h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
<br />
''对“辩护维基”的内容编辑仅限于通过批准的作者。若有意申请编辑权,请注册并发送电子邮件至 elearning@ibj.org.''<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381086China/zh2023-09-09T11:42:30Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
*[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
<br />
''对“辩护维基”的内容编辑仅限于通过批准的作者。若有意申请编辑权,请注册并发送电子邮件至 elearning@ibj.org.''<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381085China/zh2023-09-09T11:42:10Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">中国刑辩律师工具箱</h2><br />
此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh&diff=381084China/zh2023-09-09T11:41:45Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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此法律手册由国际司法桥梁与中国人民大学诉讼制度与司法改革研究中心合作编写。<br />
#[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6646/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E7%AE%B1-%E4%BF%AE%E8%AE%A2%E7%89%88_2021_Final.pdf 法律援助刑事辩护律师工具箱]<br />
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<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">法律文件</h2><br />
'''法律法规'''<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/刑法修正案 刑法修正案]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/中华人民共和国刑法 中华人民共和国刑法]<br />
*[http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定 关于审查逮捕阶段讯问犯罪嫌疑人的规定]<br />
'''司法解释'''<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/最高人民法院量刑指南 最高人民法院量刑指南]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/非法证据排除规定 非法证据排除规定]<br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/办理死刑案件证据规定 办理死刑案件证据规定]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">其他材料</h2><br />
* [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org/index.php/英汉法律术语词汇 英汉法律术语词汇]<br />
* [[Media:AmendmentVIII_China_Criminal_Code.pdf | 中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)]]<br />
* [http://www.cnlawyer.cn/l/c/23255.html New Chinese Criminal Code, effective date 01 Jan 2013, Chinese version]<br />
* [[刑事辩护律师的权利与义务:法律规范依据检索]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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欢迎来到“辩护维基” <br />
<br />
此网站及其内容由“国际司法桥梁”法律培训资料中心提供。“辩护维基”是针对全球范围内的法律援助活动家、公设辩护律师、法律学家及刑事辩护律师所设立的共享知识库。 <br />
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''对“辩护维基”的内容编辑仅限于通过批准的作者。若有意申请编辑权,请注册并发送电子邮件至 elearning@ibj.org.''<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
* 2009 Prison Population: 1.57 million, 119 people per 100,000<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381083China2023-09-08T11:09:46Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
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# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381082China2023-09-08T11:09:05Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381081China2023-09-08T11:08:31Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
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* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/16409/mod_resource/content/1/Juvenile%20Rights%20Handbook_CH_Updated%2009.2018.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
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* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381080China2023-09-07T20:17:22Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/course/view.php?id=17 eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381079China2023-09-07T18:52:07Z<p>Jsalome5: </p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China/zh]''<br />
<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
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<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381078China2023-08-30T09:00:58Z<p>Jsalome5: /* References */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref></div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381077China2023-08-30T08:59:24Z<p>Jsalome5: /* References */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” Prisonstudies.org, 2019, www.prisonstudies.org/country/china. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents. <ref> “China | World Prison Brief.” </ref><br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020. <ref> 佟海晴. “最高人民检察院工作报告(第十三届全国人民代表大会第四次会议 张军 2021年3月8日)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2021, www.spp.gov.cn/spp/gzbg/202103/t20210315_512731.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2022, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2022/10/id/6956970.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023. </ref><br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018. <ref> “今年1月至9月认罪认罚从宽制度适用率达90.5%-中国法院网.”</ref><br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1.7 million people as of 2018. <br />
*As of 2018, for every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 119 prisoners.<br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 0.8% juvenile prisoners and approximately more than 200,000 pre-trial detainees.<br />
*The Ministry of Justice holds sentenced prisoners in 683 prisons, including 41 prisons for females and 28 reformatories for juvenile delinquents.<br />
*China’s pretrial detention rate was approximately 53% in 2020.<br />
*From 2019 to 2021, procuratorial organs across the country actively applied the Plea Leniency System. The application rate of the Plea Leniency System increased from 49.3% in 2019 to 89.4% in 2021.<br />
*The rates of non-arrest and non-prosecution in criminal cases were 31.2% and 16.6% respectively, increasing by 9.1% and 8.9% respectively from 2018.<br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381075China2023-08-30T08:46:38Z<p>Jsalome5: /* Trial Procedures */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
After the procuratorate finds that a crime is constituted, and the evidence is indeed sufficient, it initiates a public prosecution with the court, and the court conducts a trial. All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has confessed to his or her crime. However, where the defendant has pled guilty under the plea leniency system, the case might be diverted to a simpler procedure. <br />
There are three trial procedures: regular procedure, summary procedure, and expedited adjudication (also called fast-track sentencing procedure). Summary procedure is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic-level people’s court which satisfies all of the following conditions: (1) The facts of a case are clear and the evidence is concrete and sufficient; (2) The defendant pleads guilty to his/her crime, and has no objection on facts of the crime charged; and (3) The defendant has no objection on the application of the summary procedures,” (see CPL, Art. 208). Expedited adjudication is available in cases “under the jurisdiction of a basic people's court where the defendant may be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years, provided that the facts of the case are clear, the evidence is definitive and sufficient, and the defendant admits guilt, accepts punishment, and agrees with the application of the fast-track sentencing procedure.” Expedited cases are tried by a sole judge (2018 CPL, Art.222). Although contested cases must be heard by regular trial procedure, cases in which the accused admits guilt and accepts punishment can be heard by any of the three trial procedures depending on the defendant’s choice.<br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Criminal Procedure Law, and continuing with the revisions of 2012 and 2018, as well as the 2016 pivot to a trial-centered approach, Chinese trials have become more adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. At the trial stage, the lawyer can freely go to the court to get copies of all evidence the prosecutor has placed in the court file. However, despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still face limitations in what they can do in trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant. <br />
<br />
During trials, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witnesses rarely appear. Generally, witness statements are merely read aloud in court by the prosecution, depriving the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. <ref> “证人保护制度的不足与完善-中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2013, www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/09/id/1095093.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> It is also rare for expert witnesses to appear in-person in court. Prosecutors usually rely on forensic reports and evaluations. Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. [16] Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if their clients confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
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<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1,620,000, but the US State Department estimates the population to be at approximately 2,500,000 <br />
*For every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 120 prisoners. However, the US State Department estimates that 186 is a more accurate number <br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 1.4% juvenile prisoners and approximately 100,000 pre-trial detainees (according to an estimate made by an East Asian criminal justice expert)<br />
*The Chinese Ministry of Justice reports that the PRC has 700 prison facilities. The US State Department additionally reports that China has 30 juvenile prisons and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate declares that China has 340 re-education-through-labor camps <br />
*Official prison capacity of re-education-through-labor camps is reported by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate to be 300,000. The occupancy level of these camps is approximated to be 87%<br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381074China2023-08-30T08:42:46Z<p>Jsalome5: /* Pre-trial phase */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law. <ref>佟海晴. “关于依法保障律师执业权利的规定(全文)_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院.” Spp.gov.cn, 2015, www.spp.gov.cn/flfg/gfwj/201509/t20150921_104855.shtml. Accessed 2 Aug. 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. <ref>“中国法院网.” Chinacourt.org, 2019, www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2019/10/id/149982.shtml. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.</ref> The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other. These stages are the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial. The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who at this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage lawyers’ roles are severely limited, but Criminal Procedure Law states that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their clients’ behalf. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref><br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered in order for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 137</ref> During this stage, the defendant is entitled to legal counsel. However, few lawyers are assigned to the cases of indigent persons and often do not see the point in accessing their clients at such an early stage. <br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Chinese trials have become increasingly adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 36, 96, 150, and 12</ref> Despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still are not active players in trials. <br />
<br />
All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has plead guilty. Although Chinese law dictates that lawyers must be assigned cases at least ten days prior to the trial <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 151</ref>, they are often not appointed cases until two to three days before the trial begins. In addition, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witness statements are merely read aloud in court, depriving either the prosecution or the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. The Chinese standard of proof states that “the facts are clear and the evidence is reliable and sufficient”. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 162</ref> Thus the accused person may be found innocent outright or by reason of insufficient evidence. <br />
<br />
Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 67,68</ref> Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if they confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence. <br />
<br />
Chinese courts are not limited to making decisions based solely on the charges filed. For example, even if the defendant is accused only of intentional injury a court may find the defendant guilty of murder if it believes that the defendant had the explicit intent to kill. Thus, lawyers must be prepared for all possible outcomes in a criminal case. <br />
<br />
China guarantees the right to legal counsel, but most of the Chinese population is far too poor to hire sufficient legal aid. According to law though, only those who are juveniles, blind, deaf, and/or mute, and those facing the death penalty have the right to appointed counsel. Those who are financially unable to secure counsel are appointed representation based on a selective basis. Lawyers are rarely willing to represent defendants, however, as the pay is notoriously low, effective counsel is often difficult to achieve, criminal defense is regarded as risky activity, and criminal defense lawyers are not respected among within the legal community. <br />
<br />
The Chinese law only guarantees lawyers to limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 36</ref> Discovery includes the right to judicial documents, but not the defendant’s statement, the statements of witnesses, and all other physical evidence. <br />
<br />
Lawyers often play a small role in Chinese trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant or to actually defend the client. Finally, lawyers are rarely allowed by police to collect evidence or to conduct any other activities that would help him develop a solid defense case. <br />
<br />
Chinese judges often intentionally limit the role of the lawyer at trial. These judges see the lawyers as trivial and thus seek to make their work seem insignificant. For example, it is common for judges to refuse to allow a defense lawyer to present evidence or other opinions. They claim instead that that such information is inapplicable to the case at hand.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1,620,000, but the US State Department estimates the population to be at approximately 2,500,000 <br />
*For every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 120 prisoners. However, the US State Department estimates that 186 is a more accurate number <br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 1.4% juvenile prisoners and approximately 100,000 pre-trial detainees (according to an estimate made by an East Asian criminal justice expert)<br />
*The Chinese Ministry of Justice reports that the PRC has 700 prison facilities. The US State Department additionally reports that China has 30 juvenile prisons and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate declares that China has 340 re-education-through-labor camps <br />
*Official prison capacity of re-education-through-labor camps is reported by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate to be 300,000. The occupancy level of these camps is approximated to be 87%<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381073China2023-08-30T08:39:08Z<p>Jsalome5: /* Court procedures */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law.<br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Trial Procedures==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other. These stages are the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial. The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who at this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage lawyers’ roles are severely limited, but Criminal Procedure Law states that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their clients’ behalf. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref><br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered in order for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 137</ref> During this stage, the defendant is entitled to legal counsel. However, few lawyers are assigned to the cases of indigent persons and often do not see the point in accessing their clients at such an early stage. <br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Chinese trials have become increasingly adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 36, 96, 150, and 12</ref> Despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still are not active players in trials. <br />
<br />
All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has plead guilty. Although Chinese law dictates that lawyers must be assigned cases at least ten days prior to the trial <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 151</ref>, they are often not appointed cases until two to three days before the trial begins. In addition, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witness statements are merely read aloud in court, depriving either the prosecution or the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. The Chinese standard of proof states that “the facts are clear and the evidence is reliable and sufficient”. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 162</ref> Thus the accused person may be found innocent outright or by reason of insufficient evidence. <br />
<br />
Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 67,68</ref> Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if they confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence. <br />
<br />
Chinese courts are not limited to making decisions based solely on the charges filed. For example, even if the defendant is accused only of intentional injury a court may find the defendant guilty of murder if it believes that the defendant had the explicit intent to kill. Thus, lawyers must be prepared for all possible outcomes in a criminal case. <br />
<br />
China guarantees the right to legal counsel, but most of the Chinese population is far too poor to hire sufficient legal aid. According to law though, only those who are juveniles, blind, deaf, and/or mute, and those facing the death penalty have the right to appointed counsel. Those who are financially unable to secure counsel are appointed representation based on a selective basis. Lawyers are rarely willing to represent defendants, however, as the pay is notoriously low, effective counsel is often difficult to achieve, criminal defense is regarded as risky activity, and criminal defense lawyers are not respected among within the legal community. <br />
<br />
The Chinese law only guarantees lawyers to limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 36</ref> Discovery includes the right to judicial documents, but not the defendant’s statement, the statements of witnesses, and all other physical evidence. <br />
<br />
Lawyers often play a small role in Chinese trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant or to actually defend the client. Finally, lawyers are rarely allowed by police to collect evidence or to conduct any other activities that would help him develop a solid defense case. <br />
<br />
Chinese judges often intentionally limit the role of the lawyer at trial. These judges see the lawyers as trivial and thus seek to make their work seem insignificant. For example, it is common for judges to refuse to allow a defense lawyer to present evidence or other opinions. They claim instead that that such information is inapplicable to the case at hand.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1,620,000, but the US State Department estimates the population to be at approximately 2,500,000 <br />
*For every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 120 prisoners. However, the US State Department estimates that 186 is a more accurate number <br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 1.4% juvenile prisoners and approximately 100,000 pre-trial detainees (according to an estimate made by an East Asian criminal justice expert)<br />
*The Chinese Ministry of Justice reports that the PRC has 700 prison facilities. The US State Department additionally reports that China has 30 juvenile prisons and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate declares that China has 340 re-education-through-labor camps <br />
*Official prison capacity of re-education-through-labor camps is reported by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate to be 300,000. The occupancy level of these camps is approximated to be 87%<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381072China2023-08-30T08:37:28Z<p>Jsalome5: /* Pre-trial phase */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other: the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial stages. The first two stages make up the pre-trial phase.<br />
<br />
The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who during this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage, lawyers’ roles are limited, but the Criminal Procedure Law stipulates that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their client's behalf. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they must make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan(拘传). In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the investigation authority shall inform the defendant of his right to retain a defender(CPL, Art.34) In the investigation stage, defense lawyers can provide legal assistance including representation on petitions and accusations (for violations of procedural rights), apply for a change in the compulsory measure, enquire to the investigative organs about the relevant circumstances of the case, and provide legal opinions. (CPL, Art.38) <br />
<br />
All suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of the arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. Further, the police are required to inform the suspect of the relevant laws that grant lenient treatment if he admits his crime. (CPL, Art.120) Chinese law prohibits torture and evidence that has been violently or illegally obtained from the suspect shall be excluded. Where the collection of physical or documentary evidence does not comply with legally-prescribed procedures and may seriously affect judicial justice, corrections shall be made or reasonable explanations should be given; Where corrections cannot be made or reasonable explanations cannot be given, the evidence shall be excluded. (CPL, Art.56)<br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable and sufficient (CPL, Art.171). In making these determinations, the prosecutor must interrogate the suspect and his or her representative and consult with the victim and his or her representative. If, during this review, the prosecutor discovers that any illegal method was used during investigation, the prosecutor may refer the conduct of the investigator to the appropriate disciplinary authority. If the misconduct rises to the level of a criminal offense, it is referred to the appropriate section of the Procuratorate for investigation (CPL, Art.175). A decision to initiate public prosecution should be made within a month; for cases of a substantive and complicated nature, that deadline can be extended by 15 days (CPL, Art.172). <br />
<br />
Chinese law only guarantees lawyers limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. Discovery includes the right to all judicial documents in the case, except for the discussion records of the people's procuratorate's procuratorial committee, the discussion records of the collegial panel of the people's court, the adjudication committee, and other materials that cannot be disclosed in accordance with law.<br />
<br />
Lawyers can also conduct independent investigations during the prosecution stage, including collecting evidence from witnesses, and with approval from the prosecutor’s office, gathering and collecting physical evidence and interviewing victims, their families, and witnesses provided by the victim (CPL, Art. 43). However, In practice, it is uncommon for lawyers to exercise this right. This is because of the high risk of facing criminal charges under Art.306 of the Criminal Law for fabricating evidence or inducing witnesses to give false testimony. Also, the fact that there are no specific procedures regulating how lawyers can make applications to the courts or prosecutors for approval of evidence collection, and the evidence collected independently by lawyers are often not accepted by the courts, prevent lawyers from exercising this right in reality.<br />
<br />
'''Plea Leniency System'''<br />
<br />
In 2018, China established the plea leniency system (“Admission of Guilt and Acceptance of Punishment”) to formalize the legal system’s approach to guilty pleas in criminal proceedings, divert criminal cases based on complexity, and conserve judicial resources. The system stipulates that every defendant must be provided with legal representation to safeguard the voluntariness and accuracy of the plea. The plea leniency system applies to all stages of criminal procedures including investigation, prosecution, and trial. In the investigation stage, "accepting punishment" is represented by a willingness to accept punishment. In the prosecution stage, it is represented by the acceptance of the procuratorate's proposed decision to prosecute or not to prosecute, recognition of the procuratorate's sentencing recommendations, and signing of a recognizance to admit guilt and accept punishment. The defendant should sign the recognizance in the presence of his lawyer or a duty lawyer, and his lawyer or the duty lawyer must also sign on the recognizance to ensure that the defendant voluntarily admits his guilt and accepts the punishment. At the trial stage, it is represented by a confirmation of the voluntary signing of a recognizance before the court and a willingness to accept punishment in the trial stage. Then, whether and how to impose lenient punishment shall be decided in accordance with the law, the nature of the case and the relevant circumstances.<br />
<br />
==Court procedures==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other. These stages are the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial. The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who at this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage lawyers’ roles are severely limited, but Criminal Procedure Law states that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their clients’ behalf. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref><br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered in order for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 137</ref> During this stage, the defendant is entitled to legal counsel. However, few lawyers are assigned to the cases of indigent persons and often do not see the point in accessing their clients at such an early stage. <br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Chinese trials have become increasingly adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 36, 96, 150, and 12</ref> Despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still are not active players in trials. <br />
<br />
All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has plead guilty. Although Chinese law dictates that lawyers must be assigned cases at least ten days prior to the trial <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 151</ref>, they are often not appointed cases until two to three days before the trial begins. In addition, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witness statements are merely read aloud in court, depriving either the prosecution or the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. The Chinese standard of proof states that “the facts are clear and the evidence is reliable and sufficient”. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 162</ref> Thus the accused person may be found innocent outright or by reason of insufficient evidence. <br />
<br />
Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 67,68</ref> Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if they confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence. <br />
<br />
Chinese courts are not limited to making decisions based solely on the charges filed. For example, even if the defendant is accused only of intentional injury a court may find the defendant guilty of murder if it believes that the defendant had the explicit intent to kill. Thus, lawyers must be prepared for all possible outcomes in a criminal case. <br />
<br />
China guarantees the right to legal counsel, but most of the Chinese population is far too poor to hire sufficient legal aid. According to law though, only those who are juveniles, blind, deaf, and/or mute, and those facing the death penalty have the right to appointed counsel. Those who are financially unable to secure counsel are appointed representation based on a selective basis. Lawyers are rarely willing to represent defendants, however, as the pay is notoriously low, effective counsel is often difficult to achieve, criminal defense is regarded as risky activity, and criminal defense lawyers are not respected among within the legal community. <br />
<br />
The Chinese law only guarantees lawyers to limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 36</ref> Discovery includes the right to judicial documents, but not the defendant’s statement, the statements of witnesses, and all other physical evidence. <br />
<br />
Lawyers often play a small role in Chinese trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant or to actually defend the client. Finally, lawyers are rarely allowed by police to collect evidence or to conduct any other activities that would help him develop a solid defense case. <br />
<br />
Chinese judges often intentionally limit the role of the lawyer at trial. These judges see the lawyers as trivial and thus seek to make their work seem insignificant. For example, it is common for judges to refuse to allow a defense lawyer to present evidence or other opinions. They claim instead that that such information is inapplicable to the case at hand.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1,620,000, but the US State Department estimates the population to be at approximately 2,500,000 <br />
*For every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 120 prisoners. However, the US State Department estimates that 186 is a more accurate number <br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 1.4% juvenile prisoners and approximately 100,000 pre-trial detainees (according to an estimate made by an East Asian criminal justice expert)<br />
*The Chinese Ministry of Justice reports that the PRC has 700 prison facilities. The US State Department additionally reports that China has 30 juvenile prisons and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate declares that China has 340 re-education-through-labor camps <br />
*Official prison capacity of re-education-through-labor camps is reported by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate to be 300,000. The occupancy level of these camps is approximated to be 87%<br />
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{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381071China2023-08-30T08:32:49Z<p>Jsalome5: /* Rights of Defenders */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. <ref> Supreme People's Court, Supreme People's Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security et al. Opinions on Advancing the Reform of Making Criminal Procedure System Trial-Centered, 10 Oct. 2016, ChinaLawTranslate, https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/trial-centered-criminal-procedure-system/</ref><br />
The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they are required to make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan. In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the defendant does not have the right to legal counsel or communication with anyone. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 90-96</ref> Only after the questioning has been completed is the defendant informed of his right to legal counsel. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref> Despite this, the lawyer is still not entitled to help the suspect prepare a defense case, but may only provide legal support and advice. <ref>Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 101 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref> <br />
<br />
All Chinese suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of their arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 93</ref> Chinese law additionally prohibits the use of torture or other methods of obtaining evidence, but does not exempt evidence that has been illegally obtained. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 43</ref> This means that confessions obtained under torture or duress can be used in court even though torture itself is technically not legal. <ref>Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 101 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref><br />
<br />
==Court procedures==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other. These stages are the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial. The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who at this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage lawyers’ roles are severely limited, but Criminal Procedure Law states that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their clients’ behalf. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref><br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered in order for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 137</ref> During this stage, the defendant is entitled to legal counsel. However, few lawyers are assigned to the cases of indigent persons and often do not see the point in accessing their clients at such an early stage. <br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Chinese trials have become increasingly adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 36, 96, 150, and 12</ref> Despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still are not active players in trials. <br />
<br />
All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has plead guilty. Although Chinese law dictates that lawyers must be assigned cases at least ten days prior to the trial <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 151</ref>, they are often not appointed cases until two to three days before the trial begins. In addition, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witness statements are merely read aloud in court, depriving either the prosecution or the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. The Chinese standard of proof states that “the facts are clear and the evidence is reliable and sufficient”. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 162</ref> Thus the accused person may be found innocent outright or by reason of insufficient evidence. <br />
<br />
Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 67,68</ref> Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if they confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence. <br />
<br />
Chinese courts are not limited to making decisions based solely on the charges filed. For example, even if the defendant is accused only of intentional injury a court may find the defendant guilty of murder if it believes that the defendant had the explicit intent to kill. Thus, lawyers must be prepared for all possible outcomes in a criminal case. <br />
<br />
China guarantees the right to legal counsel, but most of the Chinese population is far too poor to hire sufficient legal aid. According to law though, only those who are juveniles, blind, deaf, and/or mute, and those facing the death penalty have the right to appointed counsel. Those who are financially unable to secure counsel are appointed representation based on a selective basis. Lawyers are rarely willing to represent defendants, however, as the pay is notoriously low, effective counsel is often difficult to achieve, criminal defense is regarded as risky activity, and criminal defense lawyers are not respected among within the legal community. <br />
<br />
The Chinese law only guarantees lawyers to limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 36</ref> Discovery includes the right to judicial documents, but not the defendant’s statement, the statements of witnesses, and all other physical evidence. <br />
<br />
Lawyers often play a small role in Chinese trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant or to actually defend the client. Finally, lawyers are rarely allowed by police to collect evidence or to conduct any other activities that would help him develop a solid defense case. <br />
<br />
Chinese judges often intentionally limit the role of the lawyer at trial. These judges see the lawyers as trivial and thus seek to make their work seem insignificant. For example, it is common for judges to refuse to allow a defense lawyer to present evidence or other opinions. They claim instead that that such information is inapplicable to the case at hand.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
<br />
-----<br />
See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
<br />
*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1,620,000, but the US State Department estimates the population to be at approximately 2,500,000 <br />
*For every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 120 prisoners. However, the US State Department estimates that 186 is a more accurate number <br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 1.4% juvenile prisoners and approximately 100,000 pre-trial detainees (according to an estimate made by an East Asian criminal justice expert)<br />
*The Chinese Ministry of Justice reports that the PRC has 700 prison facilities. The US State Department additionally reports that China has 30 juvenile prisons and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate declares that China has 340 re-education-through-labor camps <br />
*Official prison capacity of re-education-through-labor camps is reported by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate to be 300,000. The occupancy level of these camps is approximated to be 87%<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Languages|China}}<br />
__NOTOC__</div>Jsalome5https://defensewiki.ibj.org/index.php?title=China&diff=381070China2023-08-30T08:29:54Z<p>Jsalome5: /* Rights of Defendants */</p>
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<div>{{Languages|China}}<br />
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{| style="float: right; padding:10px; margin:5px 0px 20px 20px; width: 280px; border: 1px solid darkblue"<br />
|-<br />
|<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CHINESE CRIMINAL DEFENSE MANUAL</h2><br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Pretrial Preparation | Pretrial Preparation]] (Investigation and Trial Prosecution)<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Developing a Defense for Trial | Developing a Defense for Trial]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Questioning the Witness | Questioning the Witness]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases | Special Considerations in Juvenile Cases]] <br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty | Cases Involving a Possible Death Penalty]]<br />
# [[China Criminal Defense Manual - Motions | Motions]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL RESOURCES</h2><br />
* [[Chinese-English Legal Lexicon]]<br />
* [[Rights and Obligations of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">JUVENILE JUSTICE</h2><br />
* [https://elearning.ibj.org/pluginfile.php/6152/mod_resource/content/1/%E6%9C%AA%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C-2021%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9.pdf Juvenile Justice Manual China (2021)]<br />
* [[Media:A Handbook for Kids Rights CH-EN 2007 revised.pdf |A Handbook for Kids Rights(2018 revised)]]<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">CODES</h2><br />
* [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-law-2021/ Chinese Criminal Law,2021]<br />
* [https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/criminal-procedure-law-2018/ Chinese Procedure Criminal Law,2018]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Examining and Judging Evidence in Death Penalty Cases]]<br />
* [[Rules Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases]]<br />
* [[China - Law on Lawyers and Legal Representation]]<br />
<br />
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">LEGAL TRAINING RESOURCE CENTER</h2><br />
* [http://elearning.ibj.org eLearning Courses for Chinese lawyers]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
Chinese civilization, dating back 3,500 years, has long been one of the world’s most innovative and influential societies. The last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established in 1644 and was characterized by great expansionism, military prowess, and a highly organized bureaucracy. However, the Qing dynasty was eventually forced to abdicate and a non-dynastic republic was erected. A civil war plagued this republic and was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the ultimate victory awarded to the CCP. In 1949, the CCP established the modern-day People’s Republic of China led by Mao Zedong. China under Mao experienced extreme economic overhauls, as well as famine, poverty, and a severe Cultural Revolution. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, reformed the communist agenda and China began to experience greater economic development and social improvements. Today, China is the world’s second-largest economy.<br />
<br />
==Type of system==<br />
<br />
China's criminal justice system consists of public security bureaus, procuratorates, courts, and correctional institutions. The respective roles of these branches are as follows: the public security branches are responsible for the investigation, detention, and preparatory examination of criminal cases; the people's procuratorates are responsible for approving arrest, conducting procuratorial work (including some investigation), and initiating public prosecution; the people's courts are responsible for adjudication; and the prison or other facilities are responsible for sentence execution. <br />
<br />
The Chinese court system is based on a civil law system, modeled after Soviet and continental legal principles. China’s court system has four levels. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court which sits in Beijing. At the next level there are the Higher People's Courts which sit in the provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin). Then there are Intermediate People's Courts which sit at the prefecture level (a level of division between the province and county levels – most frequently, these are cities that are given prefecture status and the right to govern surrounding counties) and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. There are also basic People's Courts in counties, towns, and districts. The jurisdiction of each of these courts depends on the nature and complexity of the case.<br />
<br />
China’s criminal laws are codified in a Criminal Law (revised 2021), and in the regulations, rules, and opinions which are meant to further clarify and interpret various provisions of the Criminal Law. The criminal law process is governed by the Criminal Procedure Law (revised 2018), which also governs the rights of defendants and defenders.<br />
<br />
There is no jury system in China. Criminal cases are heard either by a single judge, a panel of judges, or by a mixed panel of judges with lay people (“people’s assessors”). In regular cases, the mixed tribunal is composed of one professional judge and two people’s assessors. But in major cases, the mixed tribunal should contain three professional judges and four people’s assessors (see the 2018 People’s Assessors Law, art.16). In serious cases (including most homicide cases), a judicial committee composed of the president, vice presidents, division chiefs and other leading officials of the court will decide the case.<br />
<br />
'''Legal Aid in China'''<br />
<br />
Legal aid in China is governed by the Legal Aid Law which was introduced by the National People‘s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee in August 2021 and took effect in January 2022. <br />
<br />
The judicial administrative department of the local government is tasked with setting up a legal aid agency, which will be responsible for the provision of legal aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). The work of the agency covers three aspects: accepting and reviewing applications for legal aid; appointing personnel to provide legal aid; and paying legal aid subsidies to legal aid personnel.<br />
<br />
There are three types of legal aid personnel: lawyers, grass-roots legal service workers, and legal aid volunteers (Legal Aid Law, Art.12). Lawyers include both private lawyers from law firms and in-house lawyers at legal aid agencies. <br />
Legal aid services include: legal advice; drafting legal documents; criminal defense and representation; litigation and non-litigation representation in civil, administrative and state-compensation cases; legal assistance from duty lawyers; labor dispute mediation and arbitration representation; and other circumstances stipulated by laws, regulations and rules. (Legal Aid Law, Art.22)<br />
<br />
In criminal cases, the suspect/defendant may apply for legal aid due to financial difficulties or other reasons, and the legal aid agency will review and decide whether to grant the aid (Legal Aid Law, Art.24). However, legal aid must be provided to the suspect/defendant if they belong to one of the following persons and has not entrusted an attorney for defense: minors; persons with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities; adults who cannot fully recognize their behavior; persons who may be sentenced to life imprisonment or death penalty; defendants in death penalty review cases applying for legal aid; defendants of a case tried in absentia; and other persons specified by laws and regulations. (Legal Aid Law, Art.25)<br />
<br />
A duty lawyer system was created under the 2018 revision to the Criminal Procedure Law. Legal aid agencies may station duty lawyers at the people's courts, jails, and other places. If a criminal suspect or defendant has not appointed a defender, and a legal aid agency has not appointed a lawyer to defend him or her, a duty lawyer shall provide the criminal suspect or defendant with legal assistance including but not limited to legal advice, recommendations on the selection of procedures, application for the modification of compulsory measures, and offering opinions on the handling of the case (CPL, Art.36). The intent is that duty lawyers act in the interim until a defender is secured.<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defendants==<br />
<br />
The Chinese Constitution, which was amended in 2003, does not have legal authority in court decisions. <ref>Xu, L. “The Changing Perspectives of Chinese Law: Socialist Rule of Law, Emerging Case Law and the Belt and Road Initiative.” The Chinese Journal of Global Governance, vol. 5(2), 2019, pp153-175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/23525207-12340042</ref> Nevertheless, Article 37 of the Constitution states that the freedom of Chinese citizens is absolute, that no one may be arrested without the approval of a public security office, and that no one may be unlawfully detained. However, since the Chinese Constitution is not self-executing, these rights do not necessarily protect citizens.<ref> Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 93 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''General Rights of the Criminal Defendant'''<br />
<br />
* The right to use their ethnic language and script to conduct litigation. (Criminal Procedure Law (hereinafter “CPL”), Art.9)<br />
* The right to submit an accusation against adjudicators, procurators and investigators who infringe on citizen's procedural rights and cause personal insult. (CPL, Art.14)<br />
* The right to request the recusal of adjudicators, procurators and investigators. (CPL, Art.29)<br />
* The right to a defender. (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to a legal aid lawyer if qualified (CPL, Art.35)<br />
* The right to represent him/herself (CPL, Art.33)<br />
* The right to meet with a duty lawyer. (CPL, Art.26)<br />
* The right to meet and communicate with a lawyer. (CPL, Art.39)<br />
* The right to refuse the defenders' continued defense, and separately retain a defender for his defense. (CPL, Art.45)<br />
* The right to a publicly announced decision to not prosecute, and the right to be released immediately. (CPL, Art.178)<br />
* The right to not be compelled to prove one’s own guilt (CPL, Art.52)<br />
<br />
'''Investigation Stage & Prosecution Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to an audio or video recording of the interrogation process. (CPL, Art.123) <br />
* The right to not be tortured. (CPL, Art.52)<br />
* The right to not be threatened, lured, deceived, or subjected to other illegal methods of obtaining evidence. (CPL, Art,56)<br />
* The right to not be illegally detained to obtain evidence. (CPL, Arts.56,58)<br />
* The right to refuse to answer questions that are not relevant to the case. (CPL, Art.120)<br />
* Consecutive summonses and custodial summonses must not be used to covertly confine a criminal suspect. When suspects are summoned or put under custodial summons, their food, water and necessary rest time shall be ensured. (CPL, Art.119)<br />
* The right of deaf or mute suspects to a person who understands sign language during the interrogation. (CPL, Art.121)<br />
* The right to check, supplement or correct the interrogation record. (CPL, Art.122)<br />
* The right of female suspects to be searched and inspected by female personnel or doctors. (CPL, Articles 132, 139)<br />
* The right to a warrant of custody, arrest and search. (CPL, Articles 85, 93, 138)<br />
* The right to apply for a change in compulsory measures. (CPL, Art.97)<br />
* The right to bail. (CPL, Art.65)<br />
<br />
'''Trial Stage'''<br />
<br />
* The right to a public trial and defense. (CPL, Art.11)<br />
* The right to not be found guilty except by the lawful judgment of a people's court. (CPL, Art.12)<br />
* The right to apply to the court to have new witnesses notified to appear, to have new physical evidence collected, or to apply for a new evaluation or inquisition. (CPL, Art.197)<br />
* The right to apply for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. (CPL, Articles 56, 58)<br />
* Only evidence that has been presented, identified and cross-examined in court or has gone through other court inquiry procedures and has been verified can be used as a basis for conviction and sentencing. (CPL, Art.61, Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.4) <br />
* The right of persons who have not reached the age of eighteen at the time the crime is committed, women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication, or over the age of 75 at the time of trial to not be sentenced to death. (Criminal Law, Art.49)<br />
* In the trial of a death penalty case, the defendant's criminal facts must be ascertained based on conclusive and sufficient evidence. (Provisions on Several Issues Concerning the Examination and Judgment of Evidence in Death Sentence Cases, Art.5)<br />
* The right to appeal and right to apply for trial supervision. (CPL, Articles 227, 252)<br />
<br />
==Rights of Defenders==<br />
<br />
Since the 2016 trial-centered reform within the criminal procedure system, defense lawyers have been given a more active and independent role in the judicial system. The role and rights of the defense lawyer include:<br />
* Defense lawyers may provide legal assistance to criminal suspects in the investigation phase, represent them in appeals and accusations, apply for modification of compulsory measures, learn the charges and circumstances from the investigating organs and submit corresponding comments into the files. (CPL, Art.38)<br />
* During legal representation, defense lawyers have the right to preserve the confidentiality of their client's information and relevant circumstances that they learn during the course of performing their professional activities, except for matters related to national or public security or a crime that may endanger others. (CPL, Art. 48)<br />
* Defense lawyers have the right to meet and communicate with the detained suspects within 48 hours of a formal request to the detention centers, and the meeting is protected by confidentiality. (CPL, Art. 39)<br />
* When the case is transferred to prosecution, the defender has the right to review and verify the evidence and other case file materials. (CPL, Art. 40) <br />
* When a defense lawyer finds a piece of evidence that may exonerate or acquit a criminal suspect, the defense lawyer can request a public security organ, people's procuratorate, or the people's court to collect it. (CPL, Arts. 41 and 42) <br />
* Defense lawyers can also conduct investigations and interviews on his or her own. (CPL, Art. 43)<br />
* Throughout the investigation process, defense lawyers can submit written opinions to the investigation organs and include their notes in the case file upon its transfer to the prosecution. (CPL, Art. 161)<br />
* Most importantly, defense lawyers can apply to exclude illegal evidence gathered during the investigation process, such as confessions coerced by force or torture. (CPL, Arts. 56 and 58)<br />
<br />
==Pre-trial phase==<br />
<br />
Once a criminal case has been filed against an individual, they are required to make a compelled appearance, or ju chuan. In this case, the defendant must report to the police station where they may be required to stay for up to 12 hours of questioning. During this time, the defendant does not have the right to legal counsel or communication with anyone. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 90-96</ref> Only after the questioning has been completed is the defendant informed of his right to legal counsel. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref> Despite this, the lawyer is still not entitled to help the suspect prepare a defense case, but may only provide legal support and advice. <ref>Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 101 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref> <br />
<br />
All Chinese suspects must be interrogated within 12 hours of their arrest or detention. Before posing any questions to the suspect, the police are required to ask him whether or not he has committed a crime and the circumstances of the situation. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 93</ref> Chinese law additionally prohibits the use of torture or other methods of obtaining evidence, but does not exempt evidence that has been illegally obtained. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 43</ref> This means that confessions obtained under torture or duress can be used in court even though torture itself is technically not legal. <ref>Craig M. Bradley, Criminal Procedure A Worldwide Study 101 ( 2d ed., Carolina Academic Press 2007)</ref><br />
<br />
==Court procedures==<br />
<br />
Chinese criminal procedure is divided into three stages, all of which are exclusively separate from each other. These stages are the investigation, the prosecution, and the trial. The investigation stage of criminal cases is conducted by the police, who at this time detain suspects, direct interrogations, gather evidence, and interview witnesses. During the investigation stage lawyers’ roles are severely limited, but Criminal Procedure Law states that lawyers are entitled to provide their clients with legal consultation, lodge petitions and complaints, and apply for bail on their clients’ behalf. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 96</ref><br />
<br />
After the investigation stage has been completed, the prosecution procedure begins. At this time, the investigators submit to the Procuratorate the evidence that they have gathered in order for the Procuratorate to decide whether the circumstances of the crime are clear and the evidence reliable. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 137</ref> During this stage, the defendant is entitled to legal counsel. However, few lawyers are assigned to the cases of indigent persons and often do not see the point in accessing their clients at such an early stage. <br />
<br />
Beginning with the 1996 reforms to the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Chinese trials have become increasingly adversarial in nature. These reforms guarantee greater rights to legal representation and include other measures intended to protect the right to a fair trial and to strengthen the role of lawyers. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Articles 36, 96, 150, and 12</ref> Despite these improvements, Chinese lawyers still are not active players in trials. <br />
<br />
All cases must go to trial even if the defendant has plead guilty. Although Chinese law dictates that lawyers must be assigned cases at least ten days prior to the trial <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 151</ref>, they are often not appointed cases until two to three days before the trial begins. In addition, the court has the right to subpoena witnesses to be questioned and cross-examined by both the prosecution and the defense. In reality though, witness statements are merely read aloud in court, depriving either the prosecution or the defense of the opportunity of cross-examination. The Chinese standard of proof states that “the facts are clear and the evidence is reliable and sufficient”. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 162</ref> Thus the accused person may be found innocent outright or by reason of insufficient evidence. <br />
<br />
Chinese defendants do not have the right to remain silent. At both the pre-trial and trial stage they are required to answer all questions posed to them. Under the Criminal Procedure Law, defendants who either confess to their crimes or truthfully report their actions will be rewarded and treated more leniently by the court. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 67,68</ref> Thus, lawyers often ask their clients questions that are fairly prosecutorial in nature because they believe that if they confess to the crime they will receive a more favorable sentence. <br />
<br />
Chinese courts are not limited to making decisions based solely on the charges filed. For example, even if the defendant is accused only of intentional injury a court may find the defendant guilty of murder if it believes that the defendant had the explicit intent to kill. Thus, lawyers must be prepared for all possible outcomes in a criminal case. <br />
<br />
China guarantees the right to legal counsel, but most of the Chinese population is far too poor to hire sufficient legal aid. According to law though, only those who are juveniles, blind, deaf, and/or mute, and those facing the death penalty have the right to appointed counsel. Those who are financially unable to secure counsel are appointed representation based on a selective basis. Lawyers are rarely willing to represent defendants, however, as the pay is notoriously low, effective counsel is often difficult to achieve, criminal defense is regarded as risky activity, and criminal defense lawyers are not respected among within the legal community. <br />
<br />
The Chinese law only guarantees lawyers to limited rights of discovery at the prosecution stage. <ref>Criminal Procedure Law Article 36</ref> Discovery includes the right to judicial documents, but not the defendant’s statement, the statements of witnesses, and all other physical evidence. <br />
<br />
Lawyers often play a small role in Chinese trials. Lawyers’ roles in Chinese trials are usually limited to asking for more lenient sentences and suggesting mitigating factors to the court. Lawyers rarely dispute anything that the prosecutor alleges against the defendant or to actually defend the client. Finally, lawyers are rarely allowed by police to collect evidence or to conduct any other activities that would help him develop a solid defense case. <br />
<br />
Chinese judges often intentionally limit the role of the lawyer at trial. These judges see the lawyers as trivial and thus seek to make their work seem insignificant. For example, it is common for judges to refuse to allow a defense lawyer to present evidence or other opinions. They claim instead that that such information is inapplicable to the case at hand.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
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<references/><br />
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''This page contains IBJ's English language materials for legal aid lawyers in China. For Chinese language materials, please go to [http://chinadefensewiki.ibj.org chinadefensewiki.ibj.org]''<br />
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See [[Criminal Justice Systems Around the World]]<br />
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<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#143966; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#ffffff; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">QUICK FACTS</h2><br />
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*The PRC reports that it has a total prison population of 1,620,000, but the US State Department estimates the population to be at approximately 2,500,000 <br />
*For every 100,000 Chinese citizens, the PRC reports that there are 120 prisoners. However, the US State Department estimates that 186 is a more accurate number <br />
*China’s prison population consists of about 1.4% juvenile prisoners and approximately 100,000 pre-trial detainees (according to an estimate made by an East Asian criminal justice expert)<br />
*The Chinese Ministry of Justice reports that the PRC has 700 prison facilities. The US State Department additionally reports that China has 30 juvenile prisons and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate declares that China has 340 re-education-through-labor camps <br />
*Official prison capacity of re-education-through-labor camps is reported by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate to be 300,000. The occupancy level of these camps is approximated to be 87%<br />
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